改性柑橘果胶(MCP)
改性柑橘果胶(Modified Citrus Pectin,MCP)是一种改性的、更易被人体消化的果胶形式。它是通过化学提取工艺从柑橘类水果的果皮、果肉和籽中提取的1,故又被称为解聚果胶和小分子量果胶
目录:
1.介绍
2.果胶类型和结构
2.1.果胶基本结构
2.2.果胶类型
2.3.果胶来源和生产
3. MCP与半乳糖凝集素3(Gal-3)
4.MCP抗癌作用
4.1.MCP对转移不同阶段影响
4.1.1.失巢凋亡、半乳糖凝集素-3和MCP
4.1.2. MCP对靶器官转移细胞阻滞的影响
4.1.3.MCP对癌细胞侵袭的影响
4.1.4.MCP对早期转移集落存活的影响
4.1.5 MCP对血管生成的影响
4.2.MCP对癌细胞化疗耐药性的影响
4.3.部分临床前和临床研究
5.MCP与纤维化病
5.1.主动脉狭窄
5.2.其他心血管影响
5.3.肾脏
5.4.其他纤维性疾病
6.MCP排毒作用
7.MCP免疫作用
8.与果胶相关的其他Gal-3抑制剂
9.结语
10.安全性与副作用
10.1.法律地位
10.2. 副作用
11.MCP成分与产品
11.1.临床验证的MCP成分:
11.2.MCP标准成分
12.参考文献
介绍
改性柑橘果胶(Modified Citrus Pectin,MCP)是一种改性的、更易被人体消化的果胶形式。它是通过化学提取工艺从柑橘类水果的果皮、果肉和籽中提取的1,故又被称为解聚果胶和小分子量果胶(LCP)。MCP主要由D-聚半乳糖醛酸盐组成,分子量小于20千道尔顿(kDa)、酯化度低于10%,可被小肠上皮吸收进入循环2,3。MCP已成为最有前途的抗癌症转移药物之一4。自从1992年文献首次报道MCP能够抑制黑色素瘤5和前列腺癌6的实验性转移以来,这种基于碳水化合物的化合物在癌症研究界引起了极大的关注。从那时起,MCP已被证明在体外或体内,或同时对前列腺癌6-8、结肠癌9,10、乳腺癌8,10,11、黑色素瘤5,12、多发性骨髓瘤和血管瘤有效13。关于纤维化疾病,MCP调节主动脉狭窄发病机制中的许多步骤。MCP还可以减少肾、肝和脂肪组织的纤维化3,4。MCP的其他好处包括排毒和改善免疫功能等3。
一般来说,果胶被认为是一种安全的成分,在食品加工中广泛用作乳化剂和胶凝剂,并作为膳食纤维和医药原料。因此,果胶和MCP通常被认为是安全的,获得美国FDA普遍安全认可(GRAS)地位1。
值得注意的是,MCP的作用取决于其结构或可能产生各种活性片段的果胶的改性形式14。提取方法、分离果胶的植物种类、破碎技术以及果胶本身结构复杂性的差异使活性分子的表征非常困难,不同MCP功效作用存在程度上的差异14。
果胶类型和结构
Pectin既是一种杂多糖,又是一种结构聚合物,包含在陆生植物的初代片层、中间片层和细胞壁中15,16。果胶的主要化学成分是半乳糖醛酸(一种来源于半乳糖的糖酸),由Henri Braconnot于1825年分离并描述16。商业生产的果胶是一种白色至浅棕色的粉末,主要由柑橘类水果提取,用作可食用的胶凝剂,特别是在果酱和果冻、甜点馅料、药物和糖果中;以及作为果汁和牛奶饮料中的食品稳定剂17,也是膳食纤维的来源。果胶由存在于植物初代细胞壁中的复杂多糖组成,在陆生植物的绿色部分含量丰富18。果胶是中间薄片的主要成分,在那里它与细胞结合。果胶通过高尔基体中产生的囊泡借由胞吐作用沉积到细胞壁中19。果胶的量、结构和化学成分在植物之间、植物内部随时间的变化以及植物的不同部位都是不同的。果胶是一种重要的细胞壁多糖,可使原代细胞壁延伸和促进植物生长20。在果实成熟过程中,果胶被果胶酶和果胶酯酶分解,在这个过程中,随着中间薄片的分解和细胞彼此分离,果实变得更软21。
2.1.果胶基本结构
果胶是一种碳水化合物多糖,具有许多结构,其亚基是一种共同的糖类。果胶链主要有三种类型22,主要由甲基化的D-半乳糖醛酸单元环组成。果胶的结构受到植物材料的分离条件、储存和加工的影响23。D-半乳糖氧化形成D-半乳糖醛酸,其中糖环外的R基团的第六个碳(C6)通过氧化过程从醇转化为羧酸基24。植物细胞的结构和刚性是由于D-半乳糖醛酸的酸性,它提供了强分子间键合所需的电荷25。α1-4键发生在果胶中,位于一个半乳糖醛酸环中第一个碳原子(C1)上的赤道OH基和第二个半乳糖醛酸环中第四个碳原子(C4)的赤道OH基之间。由于参与键合的两个OH基团是平伏的,因此形成了线性多糖。果胶由α(1→4)键连接的α-D-半乳糖醛酸单元长链和2-3%的I-鼠李糖单元与通过β(1→2)和(1→4)键连接的半乳糖醛酸单元组成,形成果胶物质的一级链(如图1)16

图1. 果胶分子结构(图源:https://teddychemicals.com/)
关于果胶链:
果胶的确切化学结构仍在争论中。果胶是一类共价连接的富含半乳糖醛酸的聚合物。迄今为止,果胶链通常根据其取代程度和类型分为三种类型:同聚半乳糖醛酸(HG)、鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸I(RG-I)和鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸II(RG-II)。同聚半乳糖醛酸是一种简单的多聚半乳糖醛酸链,没有取代,通常被称为“光滑(Smooth)”链;这些约占细胞壁中所有果胶的60%26。鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸I(RG-I),结构特征为交替的半乳糖醛酸单元和D-鼠李糖的长骨架序列,由空间调节的聚合物组成22。木糖半乳糖醛酸(XG)由主链中的半乳糖醛酸和分支中的木糖连接而成,而鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸II由同聚半乳糖醛酸主链组成,该主链被各种复杂的聚糖侧链取代,含有多种中性糖,因此被称为“有毛(Hairy)”。1,4糖苷键存在于整个同聚半乳糖醛酸果胶链上,而鼠李糖醛酸I通过1,2糖苷键连接(C1在半乳糖醛酸上,C2在鼠李糖上),鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸II具有1,4糖苷链(C1在鼠李糖上,C4在半乳糖糖醛酸上)22。除了鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸II,这些半乳糖醛酸没有稳定的明确结构27。螺旋形状是由于链的连接模式而形成的。以前,人们认为果胶分子由作为主要骨架的同聚半乳糖醛酸链和作为侧链插入的鼠李糖醛酸I和II链组成。然而,现在认为鼠李糖醛酸I可能是主要的骨架(主链),而同聚半乳糖醛酸(HG)和鼠李糖半乳糖醛酸II(RG-II)是主要的侧链22。
除了RG-I和RG-II上的侧链外,果胶分子在半乳糖醛酸单元上也有一定量的乙酰化和甲酯化。在果胶的甲酯化过程中,羧酸OH基团上的氢被甲基(CH3)取代,R基团从COOH变为COOCH3。通过应用不同的方法使果胶分子解聚,从而产生由具有不同聚合度的取代和未取代聚合物片段混合而成的果胶衍生化合物28。果胶多糖和其他细胞壁分子之间存在联系,结合在一起形成网络,形成初级细胞壁14。
最常用的技术包括酶29和化学30果胶改性。酶解过程中不希望的结构修饰通常可以避免,因为酶对底物的作用是特定的,其作用方式是精确的,从而产生特定的定制果胶衍生化合物31。果胶的结构修饰是由于果胶相关酶在一定程度上对果胶分子的修饰作用不足而发生的32。果胶链结构的示意图如图2所示。
除了RG-I和RG-II上的侧链外,果胶分子在半乳糖醛酸单元上也有一定量的乙酰化和甲酯化。在果胶的甲酯化过程中,羧酸OH基团上的氢被甲基(CH3)取代,R基团从COOH变为COOCH3。通过应用不同的方法使果胶分子解聚,从而产生由具有不同聚合度的取代和未取代聚合物片段混合而成的果胶衍生化合物28。果胶多糖和其他细胞壁分子之间存在联系,结合在一起形成网络,形成初级细胞壁14。
最常用的技术包括酶29和化学30果胶改性。酶解过程中不希望的结构修饰通常可以避免,因为酶对底物的作用是特定的,其作用方式是精确的,从而产生特定的定制果胶衍生化合物31。果胶的结构修饰是由于果胶相关酶在一定程度上对果胶分子的修饰作用不足而发生的32。果胶链结构的示意图如图2所示。
图2.果胶链结构示意图(Picot-Allaina et al | Heliyon. 2023)
2.2.果胶类型
美国化学学会(ACS)将果胶物质分为四种不同类型,即(a)原果胶(Protopectin),(b)果胶酸(Pectic acid),(c)果胶酯酸(Pectinic acid)和(d)果胶(Pectin)。原果胶是母体物质,相对不溶,没有凝胶形成特性。原果胶通常存在于植物细胞壁的内部组织中33。原果胶是植物组织中发现的果胶的水不溶性前体,通过限制性解聚转化为水溶性果胶。原果胶酶(PPase)是用于水解或溶解原果胶的酶,释放水溶性果胶,从而使植物细胞彼此分离34。
高酯果胶是指当酯化度大于50%的高甲氧基果胶;如果酯化度低于50%,则称为低酯或低甲氧基果胶,高或低甲氧基果胶分子结构见图1。D-半乳糖醛酸与乙醇酯化过程中羧基的百分比称为酯化度(DE)。果胶结构的特殊排列是基于半乳糖醛酸残基在同聚半乳糖醛酸(HG)的连续多聚半乳糖醛酸链上与C-6上的甲基、O-2和O-3上的乙酰基发生酯化反应37。高酯果胶在酸性环境中的脱酯化或果胶甲基酯酶的酶处理可产生低甲氧基果胶38。酰胺化果胶不是由高甲氧基和低甲氧基果胶等植物自然产生的,但可以通过将一些未酯化的羧基改性为酰胺基在工业上生产,低酯果胶可以是酰胺化的或非酰胺化的16。
酰胺化果胶是通过氨与果胶分子上的羧甲基(-COOCH3)反应合成的29,30。酰胺化程度(DA)定义为果胶中以酰胺形式存在的羧酸基团的百分比(结构如图1)。用酰胺基团取代甲氧基会改变果胶凝胶的某些性质。例如,酰胺化增加了果胶的水溶性30[32],使其更具热可逆性,并能够承受更多的钙变化29,39,40。
高酯果胶凝胶是在较高浓度的可溶性固体、水和pH<3.5的介质存在下形成的。高酯果胶凝胶的稳定性是由于甲酯之间形成分子间氢键和疏水键。这些发现可用于制备果酱、果冻、糖果和甜点。在适当浓度的二价钙离子或多价阳离子存在下,低甲氧基果胶形成凝胶;例如,由于半乳糖醛酸中的游离羧基与二价或多价离子之间的离子相互作用,Ca2+离子在2.0-6.0 pH范围内35,41,36,42。它们通常用于增强水溶性大豆提取物以及膳食和乳制品的稳定性和质地42。果胶的酯化度主要用于确定凝胶化和乳化性质,可以通过色谱、质谱、傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)、FT-RAMAN等光谱方法检测22。微阵列技术如今也用于估计酯化程度,类似于蛋白质和核苷酸研究中使用的技术43。
原料和沉淀剂也对酯化程度有很大影响。果胶在食品工业中的应用很大程度上取决于酯化程度;事实上,它应该超过60%,因为它会影响凝胶形成率和凝胶质量。中等水分的食品是按照标准程序制备的,即加入热配料,然后冷却固化;通过具有高酯化度的果胶形成适当的凝胶需要高的凝胶化温度23。由于萃取时间过长,导致果胶中存在的甲酯基团降解为羧酸,最终生产出酯化程度较低的果胶44。在成熟过程中,果胶转化为原果胶会导致糖的增加,从而由于在过低的pH值和高温下的化学反应而使果实变软,导致酯化程度降低34。
2.3.果胶来源和加工
在植物细胞壁中,果胶的浓度从初代细胞壁向质膜逐渐降低,果胶的最高浓度位于中间片层。工业果胶提取的主要来源包括柑橘类水果、苹果及其加工后产生的副产品,如柑橘皮和苹果渣45。此外,果胶的其他来源包括可可皮46、葵花籽47、甜菜48、南瓜49、西瓜50、梨51和马铃薯浆52。以干物质计,苹果渣含有约10-15%的果胶,柑橘皮含有约20-30%的果胶,而在葵花籽残渣和甜菜中,以干重计,果胶含量约为10-20%53。
从天然来源提取果胶是一个耗时且繁琐的过程,因为提取果胶所需的原料,例如果皮或果渣,水分含量高,因此容易因真菌酶的作用而分解。真菌产生的果胶酶,包括去酯化(果胶甲基酯酶)和解聚(果胶裂解酶、多聚半乳糖醛酸酶和果胶裂解酶)酶,负责果胶的分解16。与柑橘皮相比,从苹果渣中提取果胶更困难,因为它很容易被果胶酶腐败,除非在进一步储存果胶提取过程之前立即干燥以降低水分含量16。在一些苹果品种中,为了有效提取苹果汁,需要对苹果果肉进行酶处理,从而使苹果渣不适合提取果胶54。粒径、pH值、温度、提取时间和提取溶剂类型等提取参数极大地影响了果胶的产量55和干燥方法56。原料的粒径会影响果胶的产量,因为与大颗粒相比,在小颗粒的基质中可以获得更多的原果胶57,58。
果胶通常通过水提取法从原料中提取。最常见的方法包括直接煮沸、微波加热59、超声波60,61、高压釜62和电磁感应63。所有这些果胶提取方法都在一定程度上导致了果胶质量的下降。果胶的产量因提取条件而异,如温度、提取时间、pH值和原料64。
果胶在酸性水性介质中用硝酸、盐酸或硫酸、磷酸和柠檬酸等无机酸提取65。在工业规模上,酸提取和醇沉淀通常用于商业提取果胶。果胶的酸提取是基于原果胶在较高温度下发生水解的事实35,66。
与其他传统提取方法相比,酶提取果胶的回收率更高67,68。酶通过选择性解聚降解果胶,因此酶提取被认为是一种环保技术。与酸提取相比,酶的果胶产量更高,分子质量更小68。
美国化学学会(ACS)将果胶物质分为四种不同类型,即(a)原果胶(Protopectin),(b)果胶酸(Pectic acid),(c)果胶酯酸(Pectinic acid)和(d)果胶(Pectin)。原果胶是母体物质,相对不溶,没有凝胶形成特性。原果胶通常存在于植物细胞壁的内部组织中33。原果胶是植物组织中发现的果胶的水不溶性前体,通过限制性解聚转化为水溶性果胶。原果胶酶(PPase)是用于水解或溶解原果胶的酶,释放水溶性果胶,从而使植物细胞彼此分离34。
高酯果胶是指当酯化度大于50%的高甲氧基果胶;如果酯化度低于50%,则称为低酯或低甲氧基果胶,高或低甲氧基果胶分子结构见图1。D-半乳糖醛酸与乙醇酯化过程中羧基的百分比称为酯化度(DE)。果胶结构的特殊排列是基于半乳糖醛酸残基在同聚半乳糖醛酸(HG)的连续多聚半乳糖醛酸链上与C-6上的甲基、O-2和O-3上的乙酰基发生酯化反应37。高酯果胶在酸性环境中的脱酯化或果胶甲基酯酶的酶处理可产生低甲氧基果胶38。酰胺化果胶不是由高甲氧基和低甲氧基果胶等植物自然产生的,但可以通过将一些未酯化的羧基改性为酰胺基在工业上生产,低酯果胶可以是酰胺化的或非酰胺化的16。
酰胺化果胶是通过氨与果胶分子上的羧甲基(-COOCH3)反应合成的29,30。酰胺化程度(DA)定义为果胶中以酰胺形式存在的羧酸基团的百分比(结构如图1)。用酰胺基团取代甲氧基会改变果胶凝胶的某些性质。例如,酰胺化增加了果胶的水溶性30[32],使其更具热可逆性,并能够承受更多的钙变化29,39,40。
高酯果胶凝胶是在较高浓度的可溶性固体、水和pH<3.5的介质存在下形成的。高酯果胶凝胶的稳定性是由于甲酯之间形成分子间氢键和疏水键。这些发现可用于制备果酱、果冻、糖果和甜点。在适当浓度的二价钙离子或多价阳离子存在下,低甲氧基果胶形成凝胶;例如,由于半乳糖醛酸中的游离羧基与二价或多价离子之间的离子相互作用,Ca2+离子在2.0-6.0 pH范围内35,41,36,42。它们通常用于增强水溶性大豆提取物以及膳食和乳制品的稳定性和质地42。果胶的酯化度主要用于确定凝胶化和乳化性质,可以通过色谱、质谱、傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)、FT-RAMAN等光谱方法检测22。微阵列技术如今也用于估计酯化程度,类似于蛋白质和核苷酸研究中使用的技术43。
原料和沉淀剂也对酯化程度有很大影响。果胶在食品工业中的应用很大程度上取决于酯化程度;事实上,它应该超过60%,因为它会影响凝胶形成率和凝胶质量。中等水分的食品是按照标准程序制备的,即加入热配料,然后冷却固化;通过具有高酯化度的果胶形成适当的凝胶需要高的凝胶化温度23。由于萃取时间过长,导致果胶中存在的甲酯基团降解为羧酸,最终生产出酯化程度较低的果胶44。在成熟过程中,果胶转化为原果胶会导致糖的增加,从而由于在过低的pH值和高温下的化学反应而使果实变软,导致酯化程度降低34。
2.3.果胶来源和加工
在植物细胞壁中,果胶的浓度从初代细胞壁向质膜逐渐降低,果胶的最高浓度位于中间片层。工业果胶提取的主要来源包括柑橘类水果、苹果及其加工后产生的副产品,如柑橘皮和苹果渣45。此外,果胶的其他来源包括可可皮46、葵花籽47、甜菜48、南瓜49、西瓜50、梨51和马铃薯浆52。以干物质计,苹果渣含有约10-15%的果胶,柑橘皮含有约20-30%的果胶,而在葵花籽残渣和甜菜中,以干重计,果胶含量约为10-20%53。
从天然来源提取果胶是一个耗时且繁琐的过程,因为提取果胶所需的原料,例如果皮或果渣,水分含量高,因此容易因真菌酶的作用而分解。真菌产生的果胶酶,包括去酯化(果胶甲基酯酶)和解聚(果胶裂解酶、多聚半乳糖醛酸酶和果胶裂解酶)酶,负责果胶的分解16。与柑橘皮相比,从苹果渣中提取果胶更困难,因为它很容易被果胶酶腐败,除非在进一步储存果胶提取过程之前立即干燥以降低水分含量16。在一些苹果品种中,为了有效提取苹果汁,需要对苹果果肉进行酶处理,从而使苹果渣不适合提取果胶54。粒径、pH值、温度、提取时间和提取溶剂类型等提取参数极大地影响了果胶的产量55和干燥方法56。原料的粒径会影响果胶的产量,因为与大颗粒相比,在小颗粒的基质中可以获得更多的原果胶57,58。
果胶通常通过水提取法从原料中提取。最常见的方法包括直接煮沸、微波加热59、超声波60,61、高压釜62和电磁感应63。所有这些果胶提取方法都在一定程度上导致了果胶质量的下降。果胶的产量因提取条件而异,如温度、提取时间、pH值和原料64。
果胶在酸性水性介质中用硝酸、盐酸或硫酸、磷酸和柠檬酸等无机酸提取65。在工业规模上,酸提取和醇沉淀通常用于商业提取果胶。果胶的酸提取是基于原果胶在较高温度下发生水解的事实35,66。
与其他传统提取方法相比,酶提取果胶的回收率更高67,68。酶通过选择性解聚降解果胶,因此酶提取被认为是一种环保技术。与酸提取相比,酶的果胶产量更高,分子质量更小68。
MCP与半乳糖凝集素3
MCP的大多数生物医学报道都集中在它对半乳糖凝集素-3(Gal-3)的拮抗作用上。Gal-3位于细胞核、细胞质、外细胞表面和细胞外空间,是β-半乳糖苷结合凝集素家族的成员69。Gal-3是一种独特的嵌合半乳糖凝集素,在COOH末端含有130个氨基酸的单个碳水化合物识别结构域(CRD)和独特的12个氨基酸的NH2末端结构域(NTD)。CRD还含有所谓的抗死亡基序或Asp-Trp-Gly-Arg(NWGR),因为其序列与抗凋亡B细胞淋巴瘤-2(Bcl-2)蛋白相似70。在NTD中,丝氨酸6可以被酪蛋白激酶1和2磷酸化,有助于核易位和对其配体的亲和力降低。连接CRD和NTD的是由约100个氨基酸组成的胶原样序列(CLS)结构域,并且包含富含Pro-Gly-Ala-Tyr的重复基序。这种长尾允许独特的五聚体寡聚,并含有胶原酶可切割的H结构域(如图3)71[51]。半乳糖凝集素-3在癌症和纤维化疾病的进展中起着重要作用72,73。

图3. Gal-3结构(Clementy N et al | Int J Mol Sci. 2018)
图3:(A)Gal-3蛋白结构由N末端结构域(NTD)组成,该结构域具有12个氨基酸(aa)的N末端区域,并包含丝氨酸6(S)磷酸化位点。130aa的碳水化合物识别结构域(CRD)包括C-末端并含有抗死亡基序或Asp-Trp-Gly-Arg(NWGR);(B)Gal-3的五聚体结构。
关于前者,Gal-3的破坏作用是由于其能够加速转移的限速步骤74。关于后者,有害影响是由于其能够结合基质蛋白,如细胞表面受体(整合素)、胶原、弹性蛋白和纤连蛋白,并在细胞外基质(ECM)中形成交联晶格75。MCP富含β-半乳糖74[53],这使其能够与Gal-3紧密结合并调节其生物活性76。
关于前者,Gal-3的破坏作用是由于其能够加速转移的限速步骤74。关于后者,有害影响是由于其能够结合基质蛋白,如细胞表面受体(整合素)、胶原、弹性蛋白和纤连蛋白,并在细胞外基质(ECM)中形成交联晶格75。MCP富含β-半乳糖74[53],这使其能够与Gal-3紧密结合并调节其生物活性76。
MCP抗癌作用
4.1.MCP对转移不同阶段影响
大多数与癌症相关的发病率和死亡率是由转移引起的,即癌细胞从原发肿瘤生长部位转移到远端器官和组织。转移级联包含几个限速步骤,这些步骤由Gal-3调节,进而可由MCP调节74。
4.1.1.失巢凋亡、Gal-3和MCP
在从原发肿瘤和血管内逃逸后,血源性肿瘤细胞面临的第一个任务是在与锚定丧失(失巢凋亡)相关的细胞凋亡和循环过程中存活下来。Gal-3已被证明可通过调节癌细胞在细胞周期中的转变,即通过诱导细胞周期阻滞在失巢不敏感点(G1期后期),保护其免受失巢77,78。这种作用与细胞周期蛋白D1(早期G1细胞周期蛋白)的诱导和细胞周期蛋白e和细胞周期素a(G1-S细胞周期素)水平的下调以及p21(WAF1/CIP1)和p27KIP1上调有关77。Hsieh和Wu的早期研究表明,MCP可能通过下调细胞周期蛋白B和cdc2来影响人前列腺JCA-1细胞的细胞周期调节79,导致癌细胞在G2/M中的积累和随后的细胞凋亡诱导。
4.1.2. MCP对靶器官转移细胞阻滞的影响
转移的第二个限速步骤涉及肿瘤细胞在远处器官微血管中的停滞。Gal-3在介导转移性细胞粘附到内皮中的作用已得到很好的证实80-84。此外,在体外和体内,Gal-3与癌症相关的Thomsen-Friedenreich糖抗原的相互作用似乎介导了癌细胞最初粘附到血管壁,以及随后在原发性粘附到内皮的部位发生的肿瘤细胞同型聚集83。因此,MCP的抗粘附特性可能是其抗转移作用研究最多和最好的方面。从最早的研究中5,6,12,注意到MCP对小鼠B16黑色素瘤5,12和大鼠MAT-LyLu前列腺癌细胞的抗转移作用与MCP抑制肿瘤细胞粘附到内皮6及其同源聚集的能力有关5,12。在后来的研究中80,Lehr和Pienta证明,在测试的11种抗粘附剂中,MCP是体外人类前列腺癌细胞优先粘附到骨髓内皮的最有效抑制剂。同样,MDA-MB-435细胞在体外对人内皮细胞具有剂量依赖性的抑制作用10。最后,在最近的研究中,发现MCP能够抑制人体乳腺和前列腺转移沉积物的体内形成在肺和骨中癌细胞的转移沉积物>90%8。因此,MCP是肿瘤细胞粘附内皮和癌症细胞同型聚集的有效抑制剂,参与远处器官的初始转移细胞阻滞和血管内转移沉积物的形成。
4.1.3.MCP对癌细胞侵袭的影响
转移的第三个限速步骤涉及一个分叉点,在此肿瘤细胞可以在器官微血管内增殖,直到转移性肿瘤长出血管并侵入远处的器官实质85,或者在开始继发性肿瘤生长之前渗出。外渗的过程在很大程度上取决于癌细胞的侵袭倾向。它涉及肿瘤细胞与细胞外基质(ECM)蛋白的一系列相互作用,这些蛋白与基底膜和靶器官间质相关。MCP被证明可有效抑制Gal-3介导的肿瘤细胞与ECM蛋白(如层粘连蛋白)的相互作用12。此外,柑橘果胶多糖被证明以剂量依赖的方式抑制人内皮细胞10、MDA-MB-231人转移性乳腺癌细胞和人颊转移细胞通过基质凝胶的侵袭11。因此,推测MCP对各种恶性肿瘤实验性转移的体内影响包括抑制肿瘤细胞侵袭。
4.1.4.MCP对早期转移集落存活的影响
在远端器官最初停滞和外渗后,绝大多数癌细胞因各种因素诱导的凋亡而死亡,其中只有少数(<2%)存活并引起微转移86。因此,早期转移集落的克隆原性存活是转移的第四个限速步骤。MCP的主要分子靶点Gal-3是癌细胞凋亡的重要调节因子87-92。有关的几篇综述文章详细地研究了Gal-3如何保护癌细胞免受各种形式的凋亡91-93。重要的是,由于Gal-3通过在主要(即线粒体)凋亡途径上发挥作用来发挥其抗凋亡作用91-93,它可能在转移性癌症细胞克隆生存中发挥重要作用。已经提出Gal-3抗凋亡功能可以被MCP靶向93。因此,MCP抑制Gal-3可能导致癌细胞的克隆生存率降低,早期转移集落的克隆生存是MCP的另一个治疗靶点。
4.1.5 MCP对血管生成的影响
微转移最终转化为临床相关的继发性肿瘤,取决于通过血管生成形成新血管,这是转移的第五步,也是最后一步。Gal-3已被证明与内皮细胞形态发生和血管生成密切相关94-97。Gal-3作为内皮细胞的化学引诱剂,诱导内皮细胞运动、通过基质凝胶入侵和毛细血管形成,从而作为一种强大的血管生成因子发挥作用的能力得到了证明10,94。因此,人们认为并成功证实了MCP抑制Gal-3血管生成活性的能力94。MCP以剂量依赖性方式阻断人内皮细胞对Gal-3的趋化性,在0.005%时将其减少68%(P<.001),在0.1%时将其完全抑制(P<0.001)94。MCP还以剂量依赖的方式在体外抑制内皮细胞形成毛血细管94。此外,在喂食MCP的荷瘤小鼠中,体内血管生成和自发转移在统计学上显著减少94。由于抗血管生成治疗目前被视为癌症治疗最有前途和最重要的方面之一,MCP抑制肿瘤相关血管生成的能力是这种潜在的抗转移药物的一个重要特性。
4.2.MCP对癌症化疗耐药性的影响
在癌症的治疗中,化疗耐药性是一个沉重的负担,特别是因为大量患者在诊断时已经表现出转移性疾病。目前使用的绝大多数抗肿瘤药物的作用是通过内在(线粒体)凋亡途径诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡98。32作为癌细胞凋亡的重要调节因子,Gal-3抑制线粒体凋亡通路78,87,88,99,100。因此,Gal-3可直接调节癌细胞对各种化疗药物的敏感性,如顺铂88,100,101、星孢菌素(staurosporine)88、依托泊苷100、硼替佐米(bortezomib)13、地塞米松13和阿霉素102。因此,作为Gal-3抑制剂,MCP可能通过抑制Gal-3对线粒体凋亡途径的抗凋亡作用,显著改变癌症细胞对细胞毒性药物的敏感性。到目前为止,已经证明MCP对Gal-3抗凋亡功能的抑制足以逆转多发性骨髓瘤细胞对硼替佐米的耐药性,并增强其对地塞米松诱导的细胞凋亡的应答13。此外,MCP治疗血管肉瘤细胞显著增加了其对阿霉素诱导的凋亡的敏感性,导致体外阿霉素IC50降低10.7倍(从0.0075µg/ml降至0.0007µg/ml)102。这些结果强烈表明,在治疗表达Gal-3的恶性肿瘤的治疗方案中添加MCP可能会提高化疗效果。
另一方面,有趣的是,至少在最近的两项研究中,除了增强细胞毒性药物诱导的细胞凋亡外,还报道了MCP本身诱导癌细胞凋亡的能力13,103。有趣的是,多发性骨髓瘤细胞中MCP诱导细胞凋亡似乎是通过胱天蛋白酶8至胱天蛋白酶3信号级联进行的,然而,在线粒体膜电位没有显著变化的情况下13。
最近报道了一项有趣的研究,调查了几种形式的柑橘果胶(CP)对人前列腺癌细胞诱导凋亡的影响103。作者报道,市购分离果胶粉(FPP)诱导LNCaP和C4-2前列腺癌细胞的凋亡约为未处理细胞的40倍。相比之下,柑橘果胶(CP)和以PectaSol商标销售的pH修饰的果胶几乎没有凋亡活性。虽然糖基残基组成和连锁分析显示这些果胶之间没有显著差异,但温和的碱基处理以去除酯键破坏了FPP的凋亡活性,而CP的热处理导致了与FPP相当的显著水平的凋亡103。基于这些结果,作者得出结论,柑橘果胶中的特定结构元素对细胞凋亡活性负责,并且这种结构可以通过柑橘果胶的热处理产生或富集103。基于这项研究,pH处理似乎对产生诱导细胞凋亡的柑橘果胶形式并不重要。然而,早期的研究表明,pH修饰对MCP的抗粘附性能至关重要5,6,12。因此,制备MCP时使用的pH和温度处理的组合,可能是产生具有抗粘附和诱导细胞凋亡性能的果胶多糖的最佳组合5,6。
GCS-100,一种商业形式的pH MCP,增强了硼替佐米和地塞米松诱导的多发性骨髓瘤细胞凋亡,并降低了生存能力。这种影响伴随着半乳糖凝集素-3蛋白水平的显著降低13。GCS-100还在前列腺癌症细胞中诱导钙蛋白酶激活,导致其对顺铂治疗敏感105。因此,改性果胶与不同抗癌剂的组合可能代表了克服癌症患者耐药性的一种有效的新策略。
综上所述,果胶似乎在不同的细胞系和不同的小鼠模型中发挥抗肿瘤活性,这可能是通过不同的作用实现的。这些机制取决于果胶的结构或可能产生各种活性片段的果胶的改性形式。提取方法、分离果胶的植物种类、破碎技术以及果胶本身结构复杂性的差异使活性分子的表征非常困难。图4总结了不同形式果胶的不同抗癌活性。作为一种膳食纤维,果胶不会在上消化道中被消化,可以保护细胞免受诱变攻击。在结肠中,果胶被细菌发酵成丁酸盐,从而抑制结肠炎症并防止癌变。pH改性果胶以及富含半乳聚糖的果胶(RG-I)能够与Gal-3相互作用,从而抑制细胞-细胞相互作用和癌细胞转移。此外,具有高DE的富含HG的果胶与LPS竞争TLR4结合,从而阻止炎症细胞活化。最后,热改性的果胶以不依赖于Gal-3的方式启动癌细胞的凋亡。尽管这些改性分子的确切结构尚不清楚,其作用机制也不清楚,但改性果胶已成为一种有前景的抗转移药物,尤其是与更传统的分子联合使用时。
大多数与癌症相关的发病率和死亡率是由转移引起的,即癌细胞从原发肿瘤生长部位转移到远端器官和组织。转移级联包含几个限速步骤,这些步骤由Gal-3调节,进而可由MCP调节74。
4.1.1.失巢凋亡、Gal-3和MCP
在从原发肿瘤和血管内逃逸后,血源性肿瘤细胞面临的第一个任务是在与锚定丧失(失巢凋亡)相关的细胞凋亡和循环过程中存活下来。Gal-3已被证明可通过调节癌细胞在细胞周期中的转变,即通过诱导细胞周期阻滞在失巢不敏感点(G1期后期),保护其免受失巢77,78。这种作用与细胞周期蛋白D1(早期G1细胞周期蛋白)的诱导和细胞周期蛋白e和细胞周期素a(G1-S细胞周期素)水平的下调以及p21(WAF1/CIP1)和p27KIP1上调有关77。Hsieh和Wu的早期研究表明,MCP可能通过下调细胞周期蛋白B和cdc2来影响人前列腺JCA-1细胞的细胞周期调节79,导致癌细胞在G2/M中的积累和随后的细胞凋亡诱导。
4.1.2. MCP对靶器官转移细胞阻滞的影响
转移的第二个限速步骤涉及肿瘤细胞在远处器官微血管中的停滞。Gal-3在介导转移性细胞粘附到内皮中的作用已得到很好的证实80-84。此外,在体外和体内,Gal-3与癌症相关的Thomsen-Friedenreich糖抗原的相互作用似乎介导了癌细胞最初粘附到血管壁,以及随后在原发性粘附到内皮的部位发生的肿瘤细胞同型聚集83。因此,MCP的抗粘附特性可能是其抗转移作用研究最多和最好的方面。从最早的研究中5,6,12,注意到MCP对小鼠B16黑色素瘤5,12和大鼠MAT-LyLu前列腺癌细胞的抗转移作用与MCP抑制肿瘤细胞粘附到内皮6及其同源聚集的能力有关5,12。在后来的研究中80,Lehr和Pienta证明,在测试的11种抗粘附剂中,MCP是体外人类前列腺癌细胞优先粘附到骨髓内皮的最有效抑制剂。同样,MDA-MB-435细胞在体外对人内皮细胞具有剂量依赖性的抑制作用10。最后,在最近的研究中,发现MCP能够抑制人体乳腺和前列腺转移沉积物的体内形成在肺和骨中癌细胞的转移沉积物>90%8。因此,MCP是肿瘤细胞粘附内皮和癌症细胞同型聚集的有效抑制剂,参与远处器官的初始转移细胞阻滞和血管内转移沉积物的形成。
4.1.3.MCP对癌细胞侵袭的影响
转移的第三个限速步骤涉及一个分叉点,在此肿瘤细胞可以在器官微血管内增殖,直到转移性肿瘤长出血管并侵入远处的器官实质85,或者在开始继发性肿瘤生长之前渗出。外渗的过程在很大程度上取决于癌细胞的侵袭倾向。它涉及肿瘤细胞与细胞外基质(ECM)蛋白的一系列相互作用,这些蛋白与基底膜和靶器官间质相关。MCP被证明可有效抑制Gal-3介导的肿瘤细胞与ECM蛋白(如层粘连蛋白)的相互作用12。此外,柑橘果胶多糖被证明以剂量依赖的方式抑制人内皮细胞10、MDA-MB-231人转移性乳腺癌细胞和人颊转移细胞通过基质凝胶的侵袭11。因此,推测MCP对各种恶性肿瘤实验性转移的体内影响包括抑制肿瘤细胞侵袭。
4.1.4.MCP对早期转移集落存活的影响
在远端器官最初停滞和外渗后,绝大多数癌细胞因各种因素诱导的凋亡而死亡,其中只有少数(<2%)存活并引起微转移86。因此,早期转移集落的克隆原性存活是转移的第四个限速步骤。MCP的主要分子靶点Gal-3是癌细胞凋亡的重要调节因子87-92。有关的几篇综述文章详细地研究了Gal-3如何保护癌细胞免受各种形式的凋亡91-93。重要的是,由于Gal-3通过在主要(即线粒体)凋亡途径上发挥作用来发挥其抗凋亡作用91-93,它可能在转移性癌症细胞克隆生存中发挥重要作用。已经提出Gal-3抗凋亡功能可以被MCP靶向93。因此,MCP抑制Gal-3可能导致癌细胞的克隆生存率降低,早期转移集落的克隆生存是MCP的另一个治疗靶点。
4.1.5 MCP对血管生成的影响
微转移最终转化为临床相关的继发性肿瘤,取决于通过血管生成形成新血管,这是转移的第五步,也是最后一步。Gal-3已被证明与内皮细胞形态发生和血管生成密切相关94-97。Gal-3作为内皮细胞的化学引诱剂,诱导内皮细胞运动、通过基质凝胶入侵和毛细血管形成,从而作为一种强大的血管生成因子发挥作用的能力得到了证明10,94。因此,人们认为并成功证实了MCP抑制Gal-3血管生成活性的能力94。MCP以剂量依赖性方式阻断人内皮细胞对Gal-3的趋化性,在0.005%时将其减少68%(P<.001),在0.1%时将其完全抑制(P<0.001)94。MCP还以剂量依赖的方式在体外抑制内皮细胞形成毛血细管94。此外,在喂食MCP的荷瘤小鼠中,体内血管生成和自发转移在统计学上显著减少94。由于抗血管生成治疗目前被视为癌症治疗最有前途和最重要的方面之一,MCP抑制肿瘤相关血管生成的能力是这种潜在的抗转移药物的一个重要特性。
4.2.MCP对癌症化疗耐药性的影响
在癌症的治疗中,化疗耐药性是一个沉重的负担,特别是因为大量患者在诊断时已经表现出转移性疾病。目前使用的绝大多数抗肿瘤药物的作用是通过内在(线粒体)凋亡途径诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡98。32作为癌细胞凋亡的重要调节因子,Gal-3抑制线粒体凋亡通路78,87,88,99,100。因此,Gal-3可直接调节癌细胞对各种化疗药物的敏感性,如顺铂88,100,101、星孢菌素(staurosporine)88、依托泊苷100、硼替佐米(bortezomib)13、地塞米松13和阿霉素102。因此,作为Gal-3抑制剂,MCP可能通过抑制Gal-3对线粒体凋亡途径的抗凋亡作用,显著改变癌症细胞对细胞毒性药物的敏感性。到目前为止,已经证明MCP对Gal-3抗凋亡功能的抑制足以逆转多发性骨髓瘤细胞对硼替佐米的耐药性,并增强其对地塞米松诱导的细胞凋亡的应答13。此外,MCP治疗血管肉瘤细胞显著增加了其对阿霉素诱导的凋亡的敏感性,导致体外阿霉素IC50降低10.7倍(从0.0075µg/ml降至0.0007µg/ml)102。这些结果强烈表明,在治疗表达Gal-3的恶性肿瘤的治疗方案中添加MCP可能会提高化疗效果。
另一方面,有趣的是,至少在最近的两项研究中,除了增强细胞毒性药物诱导的细胞凋亡外,还报道了MCP本身诱导癌细胞凋亡的能力13,103。有趣的是,多发性骨髓瘤细胞中MCP诱导细胞凋亡似乎是通过胱天蛋白酶8至胱天蛋白酶3信号级联进行的,然而,在线粒体膜电位没有显著变化的情况下13。
最近报道了一项有趣的研究,调查了几种形式的柑橘果胶(CP)对人前列腺癌细胞诱导凋亡的影响103。作者报道,市购分离果胶粉(FPP)诱导LNCaP和C4-2前列腺癌细胞的凋亡约为未处理细胞的40倍。相比之下,柑橘果胶(CP)和以PectaSol商标销售的pH修饰的果胶几乎没有凋亡活性。虽然糖基残基组成和连锁分析显示这些果胶之间没有显著差异,但温和的碱基处理以去除酯键破坏了FPP的凋亡活性,而CP的热处理导致了与FPP相当的显著水平的凋亡103。基于这些结果,作者得出结论,柑橘果胶中的特定结构元素对细胞凋亡活性负责,并且这种结构可以通过柑橘果胶的热处理产生或富集103。基于这项研究,pH处理似乎对产生诱导细胞凋亡的柑橘果胶形式并不重要。然而,早期的研究表明,pH修饰对MCP的抗粘附性能至关重要5,6,12。因此,制备MCP时使用的pH和温度处理的组合,可能是产生具有抗粘附和诱导细胞凋亡性能的果胶多糖的最佳组合5,6。
GCS-100,一种商业形式的pH MCP,增强了硼替佐米和地塞米松诱导的多发性骨髓瘤细胞凋亡,并降低了生存能力。这种影响伴随着半乳糖凝集素-3蛋白水平的显著降低13。GCS-100还在前列腺癌症细胞中诱导钙蛋白酶激活,导致其对顺铂治疗敏感105。因此,改性果胶与不同抗癌剂的组合可能代表了克服癌症患者耐药性的一种有效的新策略。
综上所述,果胶似乎在不同的细胞系和不同的小鼠模型中发挥抗肿瘤活性,这可能是通过不同的作用实现的。这些机制取决于果胶的结构或可能产生各种活性片段的果胶的改性形式。提取方法、分离果胶的植物种类、破碎技术以及果胶本身结构复杂性的差异使活性分子的表征非常困难。图4总结了不同形式果胶的不同抗癌活性。作为一种膳食纤维,果胶不会在上消化道中被消化,可以保护细胞免受诱变攻击。在结肠中,果胶被细菌发酵成丁酸盐,从而抑制结肠炎症并防止癌变。pH改性果胶以及富含半乳聚糖的果胶(RG-I)能够与Gal-3相互作用,从而抑制细胞-细胞相互作用和癌细胞转移。此外,具有高DE的富含HG的果胶与LPS竞争TLR4结合,从而阻止炎症细胞活化。最后,热改性的果胶以不依赖于Gal-3的方式启动癌细胞的凋亡。尽管这些改性分子的确切结构尚不清楚,其作用机制也不清楚,但改性果胶已成为一种有前景的抗转移药物,尤其是与更传统的分子联合使用时。
图4.不同形式果胶的不同抗癌活性(Leclere L et al | Front Pharmacol. 2013)
4.3.部分临床前和临床研究
关于MCP给药的抗癌益处的报道仍在继续。MCP抑制小鼠脾移植性结肠癌细胞的生长和转移105。在体外,它还诱导了雄激素依赖性和非依赖性前列腺癌细胞的细胞毒性106。此外,MCP通过降低细胞的活力和增殖,与阿霉素(Dox)协同治疗前列腺癌DU-145和LNCaP细胞107。当与紫杉醇(PTX)联合使用时,MCP增加了胱天蛋白酶-3活性,并增加了人SKOV-3卵巢癌细胞在亚G1中的百分比108。此外,当与乳腺或前列腺细胞健康补充剂联合使用时,MCP分别抑制了高转移性人类乳腺(MDA-MB-231)或前列腺(PC-3)癌细胞的侵袭潜能109。MCP-海藻酸盐益生菌显著抑制癌前病变110。MCP逆转上皮-间质转化,减少细胞增殖,并增加对抗凋亡蛋白(Bcl-xL和survivin)的抑制,具有促进胱天蛋白酶介导的细胞凋亡和抑制肿瘤细胞生长的共同作用111。在体外和体内实验中,MCP还通过诱导膀胱癌细胞的细胞周期阻滞和凋亡来抑制肿瘤生长112。
MCP降低了前列腺癌细胞的活力,并协同增强了细胞对电离辐射的敏感性113。MCP抑制细胞外Gal-3可降低结肠癌细胞迁移114。此外,MCP去除Gal-3可减轻顺铂所致肾毒性中肾组织凋亡并防止肾纤维化进展115。与MCP和PTX协同作用,通过消除信号转导子和转录激活因子3活性,杀死人类卵巢癌细胞系(SKOV3)多细胞肿瘤球体,降低了其下游靶点HIF-1α的表达,降低了整联蛋白mRNA水平,随后降低了AKT活性116。
MCP的大小和结构域结构影响其抗癌特性。使用更随机的加热(高压灭菌)改性方法生产MCP,去酯化的高半乳糖醛酸低聚物的富集以及小于3 kDa的MCP中的1型阿拉伯半乳聚糖(AG-I)和鼠李糖醛酸(RG-I)消耗,或在10至30 kDa之间的MCP中AG-I的增加和RG-I的减少,通过抑制癌细胞的迁移、聚集和增殖来促进抗癌行为117。MCP具有已知的低酯化度、低分子量和高百分比的RG-II结构域的特性,有助于有效的辅助肿瘤学和免疫治疗3。
使用MCP的临床试验显示了积极的结果。一项开放标记的II期试点研究评估了经活检证实的前列腺腺癌患者,这些患者在基线时未经治疗,前列腺特异性抗原(PSA)水平较低但逐渐升高(<10ng/mL)。患者服用MCP,剂量为每天18粒(14.4g),持续12个月。70%的患者PSA倍增时间(PSADT)延长118。结果表明癌症进展缓慢,甚至可能延长寿命。
一项初步的试点试验调查了7名前列腺癌症治疗后复发或治疗失败的患者(PSA范围为0.63至7.50),MCP的日剂量为15g。4/7名患者出现阳性反应(PSADT延长30%以上),1名患者出现部分反应,1名疾病稳定,1名无反应。所有患者在3年的随访中均存活下来119。
一项开放标记的临床试验检查了处于晚期进展状态的各种实体瘤患者。治疗周期包括每天15g MCP,持续8周。29名患者中有6名(20.7%)患者的总体临床获益反应(疼痛、功能表现、体重变化)以及生活质量改善。49例患者中有11名(22.5%)在两个周期后表现出稳定的疾病(SD),49例患者中有6名(12.3%)的SD持续时间超过24周。一名患有转移性前列腺癌的患者在治疗16周后,血清PSA减半,临床获益和生活质量增加,疼痛减轻120。
在另一项研究中,检测到循环肿瘤细胞的患者接受了综合治疗,包括饮食和锻炼建议,补充MCP,以及补充其他产品,包括姜黄素、绿茶、大蒜提取物、维生素D、药用蘑菇提取物、黑孜然籽、青蒿素和其他未命名的补充剂。循环肿瘤细胞计数由于这种综合治疗而减少121。
在2019年美国临床肿瘤学会(ASCO)-泌尿生殖(GU)癌症研讨会上发表的一项开放标记II期研究的中期结果很有希望,该研究评估了非去势非转移性生化复发前列腺癌症患者。34名患者服用MCP 4.8g×3/天,持续6个月。没有患者出现与治疗相关的3/4级毒性,而6名患者出现1级副作用(胀气和腹胀)。在这些患者中,21例(62%)PSA稳定或降低,扫描呈阴性,27例(79%)PSADT稳定或改善,扫描无转移122。这项研究仍在继续,那些在6个月时表现出益处的患者将继续接受12个月的治疗。
在2021年发表的相关后续研究中123,作者报告了基于非转移性BRPC的P-MCP前瞻性II期研究的安全性和主要结局分析。60名患者被纳入研究,1名患者在一个月后退出研究。患者(n=59)服用P-MCP,4.8克X 3/天,持续六个月。主要终点是无PSA进展的发生率和PSA倍增时间(PSADT)的改善。次要终点是无放射学进展和毒性的发生率。PSA和放射学检查在6个月时没有进展的患者继续治疗12个月。6个月后,78%(n=46)的患者对治疗有反应,58%(n=34)的患者PSA降低/稳定,75%(n=44)的患者PSADT改善,扫描结果为阴性,并进入第二个12个月的治疗阶段。PSADT中位数显著改善(p=0.003)。前6个月的疾病进展仅为22%(n=13),PSA进展为17%(n=10),PSA和放射学进展为5%(n=3)。没有患者出现3级或4级毒性123。
2023年发表了最新试验结果124,在第二个长期治疗阶段,即在最初6个月的治疗后,对没有疾病进展的患者进行额外12个月的P-MCP治疗(4.8 g×3/天口服)。在进入第二治疗阶段的46名患者中,7名患者撤回同意书并决定继续自费治疗,39名患者开始了第二治疗期。在总共18个月的P-MCP治疗后,85%(n=33)的患者有持久的长期反应,62%(n=24)的患者PSA降低/稳定,90%(n=35)的患者PSADT改善,所有患者的扫描结果均为阴性。没有患者出现3/4级毒性。总之,P-MCP可能具有长期持久的疗效,在BRPC-M0中是安全的124。
关于MCP给药的抗癌益处的报道仍在继续。MCP抑制小鼠脾移植性结肠癌细胞的生长和转移105。在体外,它还诱导了雄激素依赖性和非依赖性前列腺癌细胞的细胞毒性106。此外,MCP通过降低细胞的活力和增殖,与阿霉素(Dox)协同治疗前列腺癌DU-145和LNCaP细胞107。当与紫杉醇(PTX)联合使用时,MCP增加了胱天蛋白酶-3活性,并增加了人SKOV-3卵巢癌细胞在亚G1中的百分比108。此外,当与乳腺或前列腺细胞健康补充剂联合使用时,MCP分别抑制了高转移性人类乳腺(MDA-MB-231)或前列腺(PC-3)癌细胞的侵袭潜能109。MCP-海藻酸盐益生菌显著抑制癌前病变110。MCP逆转上皮-间质转化,减少细胞增殖,并增加对抗凋亡蛋白(Bcl-xL和survivin)的抑制,具有促进胱天蛋白酶介导的细胞凋亡和抑制肿瘤细胞生长的共同作用111。在体外和体内实验中,MCP还通过诱导膀胱癌细胞的细胞周期阻滞和凋亡来抑制肿瘤生长112。
MCP降低了前列腺癌细胞的活力,并协同增强了细胞对电离辐射的敏感性113。MCP抑制细胞外Gal-3可降低结肠癌细胞迁移114。此外,MCP去除Gal-3可减轻顺铂所致肾毒性中肾组织凋亡并防止肾纤维化进展115。与MCP和PTX协同作用,通过消除信号转导子和转录激活因子3活性,杀死人类卵巢癌细胞系(SKOV3)多细胞肿瘤球体,降低了其下游靶点HIF-1α的表达,降低了整联蛋白mRNA水平,随后降低了AKT活性116。
MCP的大小和结构域结构影响其抗癌特性。使用更随机的加热(高压灭菌)改性方法生产MCP,去酯化的高半乳糖醛酸低聚物的富集以及小于3 kDa的MCP中的1型阿拉伯半乳聚糖(AG-I)和鼠李糖醛酸(RG-I)消耗,或在10至30 kDa之间的MCP中AG-I的增加和RG-I的减少,通过抑制癌细胞的迁移、聚集和增殖来促进抗癌行为117。MCP具有已知的低酯化度、低分子量和高百分比的RG-II结构域的特性,有助于有效的辅助肿瘤学和免疫治疗3。
使用MCP的临床试验显示了积极的结果。一项开放标记的II期试点研究评估了经活检证实的前列腺腺癌患者,这些患者在基线时未经治疗,前列腺特异性抗原(PSA)水平较低但逐渐升高(<10ng/mL)。患者服用MCP,剂量为每天18粒(14.4g),持续12个月。70%的患者PSA倍增时间(PSADT)延长118。结果表明癌症进展缓慢,甚至可能延长寿命。
一项初步的试点试验调查了7名前列腺癌症治疗后复发或治疗失败的患者(PSA范围为0.63至7.50),MCP的日剂量为15g。4/7名患者出现阳性反应(PSADT延长30%以上),1名患者出现部分反应,1名疾病稳定,1名无反应。所有患者在3年的随访中均存活下来119。
一项开放标记的临床试验检查了处于晚期进展状态的各种实体瘤患者。治疗周期包括每天15g MCP,持续8周。29名患者中有6名(20.7%)患者的总体临床获益反应(疼痛、功能表现、体重变化)以及生活质量改善。49例患者中有11名(22.5%)在两个周期后表现出稳定的疾病(SD),49例患者中有6名(12.3%)的SD持续时间超过24周。一名患有转移性前列腺癌的患者在治疗16周后,血清PSA减半,临床获益和生活质量增加,疼痛减轻120。
在另一项研究中,检测到循环肿瘤细胞的患者接受了综合治疗,包括饮食和锻炼建议,补充MCP,以及补充其他产品,包括姜黄素、绿茶、大蒜提取物、维生素D、药用蘑菇提取物、黑孜然籽、青蒿素和其他未命名的补充剂。循环肿瘤细胞计数由于这种综合治疗而减少121。
在2019年美国临床肿瘤学会(ASCO)-泌尿生殖(GU)癌症研讨会上发表的一项开放标记II期研究的中期结果很有希望,该研究评估了非去势非转移性生化复发前列腺癌症患者。34名患者服用MCP 4.8g×3/天,持续6个月。没有患者出现与治疗相关的3/4级毒性,而6名患者出现1级副作用(胀气和腹胀)。在这些患者中,21例(62%)PSA稳定或降低,扫描呈阴性,27例(79%)PSADT稳定或改善,扫描无转移122。这项研究仍在继续,那些在6个月时表现出益处的患者将继续接受12个月的治疗。
在2021年发表的相关后续研究中123,作者报告了基于非转移性BRPC的P-MCP前瞻性II期研究的安全性和主要结局分析。60名患者被纳入研究,1名患者在一个月后退出研究。患者(n=59)服用P-MCP,4.8克X 3/天,持续六个月。主要终点是无PSA进展的发生率和PSA倍增时间(PSADT)的改善。次要终点是无放射学进展和毒性的发生率。PSA和放射学检查在6个月时没有进展的患者继续治疗12个月。6个月后,78%(n=46)的患者对治疗有反应,58%(n=34)的患者PSA降低/稳定,75%(n=44)的患者PSADT改善,扫描结果为阴性,并进入第二个12个月的治疗阶段。PSADT中位数显著改善(p=0.003)。前6个月的疾病进展仅为22%(n=13),PSA进展为17%(n=10),PSA和放射学进展为5%(n=3)。没有患者出现3级或4级毒性123。
2023年发表了最新试验结果124,在第二个长期治疗阶段,即在最初6个月的治疗后,对没有疾病进展的患者进行额外12个月的P-MCP治疗(4.8 g×3/天口服)。在进入第二治疗阶段的46名患者中,7名患者撤回同意书并决定继续自费治疗,39名患者开始了第二治疗期。在总共18个月的P-MCP治疗后,85%(n=33)的患者有持久的长期反应,62%(n=24)的患者PSA降低/稳定,90%(n=35)的患者PSADT改善,所有患者的扫描结果均为阴性。没有患者出现3/4级毒性。总之,P-MCP可能具有长期持久的疗效,在BRPC-M0中是安全的124。
MCP与纤维化病
5.1.主动脉狭窄
参与主动脉狭窄(AS)发病机制的许多步骤都受到Gal-3的调节,因此可能受制于MCP影响125。Gal-3将静止的成纤维细胞转化为肌成纤维细胞,产生和分泌基质蛋白,如胶原蛋白126,127;Gal-3也影响胶原成熟和交联128,129。它还刺激促炎介质产生130。在人类心脏成纤维细胞中,Gal-3增加白细胞介素(IL)-1β、IL-6、单核细胞趋化蛋白-1、I型和III型胶原以及纤连蛋白的产生和分泌,它还增加了金属蛋白酶-1、-2和-9的活性131。MCP治疗可消除这些影响。在血管系统中,Gal-3通过增强血管平滑肌细胞中促纤维化和促炎标志物的产生和分泌来促进动脉硬化132。MCP再次逆转了这种效应。在内皮细胞中,Gal-3增强炎症因子、趋化因子和粘附分子的表达133。Gal-3还影响人类内皮细胞中血管内皮生长因子受体2的细胞表面表达和激活,这有助于质膜滞留并促进血管生成134。在主动脉间质瓣膜细胞中,Gal-3增强炎症和纤维化介质的分泌,并增加钙化介质的表达135。MCP的给药可防止这些影响。MCP还阻止了心脏Gal-3的增加,并使短期AS的组织学和分子改变正常化136。
5.2.其他心血管影响
MCP抑制Gal-3可预防与醛固酮水平过高相关的心脏炎症和纤维化,而与血压水平无关137。MCP拮抗Gal-3和醛固酮对抗逆转异丙肾上腺素诱导的左心室收缩功能障碍,从而防止了选择性心脏高醛固酮血症小鼠模型中心肌纤维化的发展138。在压力超负荷诱导GAL-3增加的模型中,MCP阻断显示主动脉瓣钙化的介质厚度、纤维化和炎症得到改善139。它还通过抑制白细胞与内皮细胞的粘附来缩小动脉粥样硬化病变区域的大小140。
此外,MCP抑制Gal-3并减少实验性腹主动脉瘤的发展141。在肥胖模型中,MCP降低了心脏脂毒性并改善了心脏线粒体损伤142。此外,MCP恢复了心脏过氧化还原酶-4和抑制因子-2的水平,并改善了氧化状态143。动脉瘤性蛛网膜下腔出血后,MCP可预防神经损伤,这表明除了通过抑制Gal-3保护血脑屏障外,还具有多效性神经保护作用,如抗神经炎和抗凋亡作用144。MCP介导的小鼠Gal-3抑制可阻止心肌营养因子-1的促纤维化和促炎作用145。此外,MCP和培哚普利通过下调Gal-3和减少心肌纤维化,可改善缺血性心力衰竭146。MCP阻断Gal-3可防止心脏纤维化、炎症和功能改变147。
5.3.肾脏
在实验性急性肾损伤模型中,所有叶酸治疗的小鼠体重减轻,而肾脏损伤后肾脏增大;MCP显著减少了这些总体变化,但这与Gal-3表达的变化无关148。通过对Gal-3的阻断作用,MCP保护免受醛固酮诱导的心脏和肾脏纤维化和功能障碍的影响149。Gal-3的抑制使肥胖和AS模型中的肾脏Gal-3水平以及功能、组织学和分子改变正常化,通过MCP治疗预防肾纤维化、炎症和损伤150。此外,MCP减轻了自发性高血压大鼠的早期肾损伤,表现为蛋白尿减少,肾功能改善,肾纤维化、上皮-间质转化和炎症减少151。
5.4.其他纤维性疾病
在饮食诱导的肥胖模型中,MCP预防了脂肪组织纤维化、炎症和脂肪细胞分化标志物的增加,尽管不影响体重、脂肪组织重量或肥胖152。MCP可减轻肝纤维化,并有助于肝再生153。
参与主动脉狭窄(AS)发病机制的许多步骤都受到Gal-3的调节,因此可能受制于MCP影响125。Gal-3将静止的成纤维细胞转化为肌成纤维细胞,产生和分泌基质蛋白,如胶原蛋白126,127;Gal-3也影响胶原成熟和交联128,129。它还刺激促炎介质产生130。在人类心脏成纤维细胞中,Gal-3增加白细胞介素(IL)-1β、IL-6、单核细胞趋化蛋白-1、I型和III型胶原以及纤连蛋白的产生和分泌,它还增加了金属蛋白酶-1、-2和-9的活性131。MCP治疗可消除这些影响。在血管系统中,Gal-3通过增强血管平滑肌细胞中促纤维化和促炎标志物的产生和分泌来促进动脉硬化132。MCP再次逆转了这种效应。在内皮细胞中,Gal-3增强炎症因子、趋化因子和粘附分子的表达133。Gal-3还影响人类内皮细胞中血管内皮生长因子受体2的细胞表面表达和激活,这有助于质膜滞留并促进血管生成134。在主动脉间质瓣膜细胞中,Gal-3增强炎症和纤维化介质的分泌,并增加钙化介质的表达135。MCP的给药可防止这些影响。MCP还阻止了心脏Gal-3的增加,并使短期AS的组织学和分子改变正常化136。
5.2.其他心血管影响
MCP抑制Gal-3可预防与醛固酮水平过高相关的心脏炎症和纤维化,而与血压水平无关137。MCP拮抗Gal-3和醛固酮对抗逆转异丙肾上腺素诱导的左心室收缩功能障碍,从而防止了选择性心脏高醛固酮血症小鼠模型中心肌纤维化的发展138。在压力超负荷诱导GAL-3增加的模型中,MCP阻断显示主动脉瓣钙化的介质厚度、纤维化和炎症得到改善139。它还通过抑制白细胞与内皮细胞的粘附来缩小动脉粥样硬化病变区域的大小140。
此外,MCP抑制Gal-3并减少实验性腹主动脉瘤的发展141。在肥胖模型中,MCP降低了心脏脂毒性并改善了心脏线粒体损伤142。此外,MCP恢复了心脏过氧化还原酶-4和抑制因子-2的水平,并改善了氧化状态143。动脉瘤性蛛网膜下腔出血后,MCP可预防神经损伤,这表明除了通过抑制Gal-3保护血脑屏障外,还具有多效性神经保护作用,如抗神经炎和抗凋亡作用144。MCP介导的小鼠Gal-3抑制可阻止心肌营养因子-1的促纤维化和促炎作用145。此外,MCP和培哚普利通过下调Gal-3和减少心肌纤维化,可改善缺血性心力衰竭146。MCP阻断Gal-3可防止心脏纤维化、炎症和功能改变147。
5.3.肾脏
在实验性急性肾损伤模型中,所有叶酸治疗的小鼠体重减轻,而肾脏损伤后肾脏增大;MCP显著减少了这些总体变化,但这与Gal-3表达的变化无关148。通过对Gal-3的阻断作用,MCP保护免受醛固酮诱导的心脏和肾脏纤维化和功能障碍的影响149。Gal-3的抑制使肥胖和AS模型中的肾脏Gal-3水平以及功能、组织学和分子改变正常化,通过MCP治疗预防肾纤维化、炎症和损伤150。此外,MCP减轻了自发性高血压大鼠的早期肾损伤,表现为蛋白尿减少,肾功能改善,肾纤维化、上皮-间质转化和炎症减少151。
5.4.其他纤维性疾病
在饮食诱导的肥胖模型中,MCP预防了脂肪组织纤维化、炎症和脂肪细胞分化标志物的增加,尽管不影响体重、脂肪组织重量或肥胖152。MCP可减轻肝纤维化,并有助于肝再生153。
MCP排毒作用
迄今为止,MCP已用于四项解毒的临床研究。MCP治疗增加了健康志愿者尿中铅、砷和镉的排泄,没有副作用或必需元素的损耗154。在一项针对五名患者的案例研究中,单独使用MCP或MCP/海藻酸盐组合,铅或汞平均减少74%,无副作用155。MCP治疗显著降低了因铅中毒住院的儿童血液中的铅水平,并增加了尿液中的铅含量156。在一个低水平长期暴露于环境和饮食的家庭中,MCP/海藻酸盐补充剂促进了粪便中铀的排泄,没有副作用157。
MCP免疫作用
有许多关于MCP对免疫的各种影响的报道。MCP显著激活血液培养物中的T细胞毒性和自然杀伤(NK)细胞,并且NK细胞在培养物中表现出对抗K562白血病细胞的功能。低甲酯化度和富含饱和及不饱和的低聚半乳糖醛酸的柔性低分子量果胶聚合物的存在似乎是MCP中的免疫刺激碳水化合物158。MCP与头孢噻肟联合使用对所有六种耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(MRSA)菌株具有相加作用159。厚朴酚(一种从厚朴树皮中提取的纯化提取物用于亚洲传统药物)和MCP,已被证明具有协同抗氧化活性和抗炎作用160。MCP可抑制产毒大肠杆菌的粘附,并降低志贺毒素的细胞毒性161。此外,MCP与活益生菌嗜酸乳杆菌ATCC 4356补充剂联合给药,有助于维持或改善肠道微生物群的完整性和种群162。最后,MCP对小鼠脾脏中细胞因子分泌水平具有免疫调节作用,这可能受到IL-4的调节163。
与果胶相关的其他Gal-3抑制剂
还有其他的实验室MCP是通过加热和pH处理制备的。高压热灭菌MCP可诱导HepG2和A549细胞死亡。诱导的细胞死亡与经典的细胞凋亡不同,因为没有DNA分裂164。此外,高压热灭菌MCP的递送降低了载脂蛋白E缺陷小鼠的斑块体积165。用高压热灭菌果胶和三氧化二砷联合处理的肾细胞癌细胞显示出凋亡增加166。S-反式、转乙酰硫基水杨酸和pH修饰的柑橘果胶协同处理通过诱导细胞周期停滞和提高细胞凋亡率,以抑制体外甲状腺间变性细胞增殖167。pH改性的柑橘果胶也降低了Balb-c小鼠实体瘤的生长168。
几种Gal-3抑制剂也在药物开发中。一种现已放弃的药物开发中的注射用MCP GCS-100诱导急性髓系白血病细胞凋亡169。它还从CD45中去除了细胞表面Gal-3,从而使弥漫性大B细胞淋巴瘤细胞对化疗药物敏感170。GCS-100还从肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞中分离Gal-3,并改善细胞毒性和不同细胞因子的分泌171。此外,GCS-100通过激活胱天蛋白酶-8和-9通路,诱导增殖抑制、细胞在亚G1期和G1期的积聚以及细胞凋亡172。GCS-100增强钙蛋白酶的激活,从而降低Gal-3的促凋亡作用173。
药物开发中的另一种Gal-3抑制剂是一种名为TD139的可吸入制剂,这是一种硫代二半乳糖苷衍生物。这种抑制剂消除了对自然杀伤T细胞依赖性肝炎的易感性174。用TD139预处理野生型C57BL/6小鼠可降低肝损伤,导致干扰素- γ和白细胞介素(IL)-17和产生-4分化簇(CD)4(+)的 T细胞浸润减轻,产生IL-10的CD4(+) T细胞和F4/80(+) CD206(+)活化巨噬细胞总数增加,并阻止肝浸润单核细胞凋亡175。TD139在体外和体内阻断转化生长因子-β诱导的β-连环蛋白激活,并降低博来霉素治疗后肺纤维化的晚期进展176。
药物开发中的其他基于果胶碳水化合物的半乳糖凝集素抑制剂,注射GR-MD-02(半乳糖阿拉伯糖-鼠李糖半乳糖酸)和GM-CT-01(半乳糖甘露聚糖)可通过减少门静脉和间隔Gal-3阳性巨噬细胞和降低门静脉压力来降低纤维化177。该治疗使肝脏组织学显著改善,非酒精性脂肪肝炎(NASH)活性和胶原沉积显著降低;GM-CT-01具有介于载具和GR-MD-02之间的中间效应178 。
几种Gal-3抑制剂也在药物开发中。一种现已放弃的药物开发中的注射用MCP GCS-100诱导急性髓系白血病细胞凋亡169。它还从CD45中去除了细胞表面Gal-3,从而使弥漫性大B细胞淋巴瘤细胞对化疗药物敏感170。GCS-100还从肿瘤浸润淋巴细胞中分离Gal-3,并改善细胞毒性和不同细胞因子的分泌171。此外,GCS-100通过激活胱天蛋白酶-8和-9通路,诱导增殖抑制、细胞在亚G1期和G1期的积聚以及细胞凋亡172。GCS-100增强钙蛋白酶的激活,从而降低Gal-3的促凋亡作用173。
药物开发中的另一种Gal-3抑制剂是一种名为TD139的可吸入制剂,这是一种硫代二半乳糖苷衍生物。这种抑制剂消除了对自然杀伤T细胞依赖性肝炎的易感性174。用TD139预处理野生型C57BL/6小鼠可降低肝损伤,导致干扰素- γ和白细胞介素(IL)-17和产生-4分化簇(CD)4(+)的 T细胞浸润减轻,产生IL-10的CD4(+) T细胞和F4/80(+) CD206(+)活化巨噬细胞总数增加,并阻止肝浸润单核细胞凋亡175。TD139在体外和体内阻断转化生长因子-β诱导的β-连环蛋白激活,并降低博来霉素治疗后肺纤维化的晚期进展176。
药物开发中的其他基于果胶碳水化合物的半乳糖凝集素抑制剂,注射GR-MD-02(半乳糖阿拉伯糖-鼠李糖半乳糖酸)和GM-CT-01(半乳糖甘露聚糖)可通过减少门静脉和间隔Gal-3阳性巨噬细胞和降低门静脉压力来降低纤维化177。该治疗使肝脏组织学显著改善,非酒精性脂肪肝炎(NASH)活性和胶原沉积显著降低;GM-CT-01具有介于载具和GR-MD-02之间的中间效应178 。
结语
关于MCP使用的临床研究和临床前研究已经注意到了广泛的益处。MCP的大部分益处与其对Gal-3的拮抗作用有关。随着Gal-3研究继续确定疾病进展的新机制,毫无疑问,MCP将被发现新的益处。MCP的有利作用并不局限于Gal-3拮抗作用;已经研究了其他多效性效应。大规模临床试验有理由检查MCP对稳健临床终点的影响。
安全性和副作用
10.1.法律地位
在世界粮农组织(FAO)/世界卫生组织(WHO)食品添加剂专家委员会联合报告中,由于果胶被认为是安全的,因此没有确定可接受的每日摄入量(ADI)179。
欧盟(EU)尚未对两类果胶即E440(i)(非酰胺果胶)和E440(ii)(酰胺果胶)设定每日摄入量限制。欧盟条例(EU)/231/2012中为这些添加剂制定了纯度标准,果胶可以根据需要用于大多数食品类别,这一概念被称为“足量标准(Quantum Satis)”180。欧洲食品安全局(EFSA)于2017年对果胶E440(i)和酰胺化果胶E440进行了重新评估,认为使用这些食品添加剂不会对普通人群造成安全问题。此外,该机构表示,没有必要为每日摄入量(ADI)确定一个数值181,182。
10.2.副作用
尽管MCP比天然柑橘果胶更容易消化,但对柑橘过敏或敏感的人在服用任何一种柑橘果胶时都可能出现胀气、腹泻或胃部不适,停止服用后症状消失183,184。
在世界粮农组织(FAO)/世界卫生组织(WHO)食品添加剂专家委员会联合报告中,由于果胶被认为是安全的,因此没有确定可接受的每日摄入量(ADI)179。
欧盟(EU)尚未对两类果胶即E440(i)(非酰胺果胶)和E440(ii)(酰胺果胶)设定每日摄入量限制。欧盟条例(EU)/231/2012中为这些添加剂制定了纯度标准,果胶可以根据需要用于大多数食品类别,这一概念被称为“足量标准(Quantum Satis)”180。欧洲食品安全局(EFSA)于2017年对果胶E440(i)和酰胺化果胶E440进行了重新评估,认为使用这些食品添加剂不会对普通人群造成安全问题。此外,该机构表示,没有必要为每日摄入量(ADI)确定一个数值181,182。
10.2.副作用
尽管MCP比天然柑橘果胶更容易消化,但对柑橘过敏或敏感的人在服用任何一种柑橘果胶时都可能出现胀气、腹泻或胃部不适,停止服用后症状消失183,184。
MCP成分与产品
11.1.临床验证的MCP成分:
PectaSol®(P-MCP)是目前市场上唯一获得多项临床研究支持的改性柑橘果胶成分122-124,由美国ecoNugenics公司研发和销售。PectaSol®分子量<13kDa、酯化度<5 (根据其官网)。
作为膳食补充剂,其安全性被美国FDA归类为GRAS(公认安全)123。此外,它也是被美国纪念斯凯隆癌症中心(MSK,全美排名第二)官网推荐给医生使用的唯一品牌183。
了解其更多相关内容、产品信息,可参阅本网站专文:改性柑橘果胶专利品牌PectoSOL >>
了解改性柑橘果胶适应证、服用方法和产品分类和购买路径等,可参阅本网站专文:改性柑橘果胶 >>
11.2. MCP标准成分:
标准化MCP一般为分子量<15kDa、酯化度<15%,半乳糖醛酸含量>85%。
市场上有不同的MCP产品作为补充剂销售。不过,需要注意的是,MCP的功效作用取决于其结构或改性形式14。因此,应选择经过科学研究的产品。
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PectaSol®(P-MCP)是目前市场上唯一获得多项临床研究支持的改性柑橘果胶成分122-124,由美国ecoNugenics公司研发和销售。PectaSol®分子量<13kDa、酯化度<5 (根据其官网)。
作为膳食补充剂,其安全性被美国FDA归类为GRAS(公认安全)123。此外,它也是被美国纪念斯凯隆癌症中心(MSK,全美排名第二)官网推荐给医生使用的唯一品牌183。
了解其更多相关内容、产品信息,可参阅本网站专文:改性柑橘果胶专利品牌PectoSOL >>
了解改性柑橘果胶适应证、服用方法和产品分类和购买路径等,可参阅本网站专文:改性柑橘果胶 >>
11.2. MCP标准成分:
标准化MCP一般为分子量<15kDa、酯化度<15%,半乳糖醛酸含量>85%。
市场上有不同的MCP产品作为补充剂销售。不过,需要注意的是,MCP的功效作用取决于其结构或改性形式14。因此,应选择经过科学研究的产品。
参考文献:
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