什么是AKK菌-下一代益生菌(会员版)
嗜粘蛋白阿克曼菌(Akkermansia muciniphila,简称AKK菌)是一种从人类粪便中分离出来的人类肠道共生菌1。它是一种阿克曼菌属(Akkermansia)的粘蛋白降解细菌,
目录
1.AKK菌是什么
2.AKK菌肠道生态学
2.1.AKK菌的特性
2.2.AKK菌的定植和丰度
2.2.1.AKK菌定植取决于肠道位置
2.2.2. AKK菌定植随着年龄增长丰度增加
2.3.影响AKK菌在肠道定植和丰度的因素
2.3.1.AKK菌的丰度与不同肠道疾病有关
2.3.2.饮食和生活方式可调节AKK菌的丰度
3.AKK菌在代谢性疾病中的分子机制
3.1.通过肠道肽激素分泌进行交流
3.2.AKK菌介导的抗炎作用
4. AKK菌在预防肥胖和代谢综合征中的作用
5. AKK在抗糖尿病中的作用
5.1.肠道微生物群与2型糖尿病
5.2.AKK菌在2型糖尿病中作用
5.3.AKK菌调节作为2型糖尿病治疗创新的可能性
5.3.1. AKK菌直接给药
5.3.2.益生元作为肠道AKK菌的促生长物质
5.3.3.二甲双胍对肠道AKK菌丰度的影响
5.3.4.减肥手术与肠道微生物群组成的改善
5.4.未来展望
6.AKK菌在预防炎症性肠病中的作用
7.结语
8.安全性与副作用
8.1.剂量与安全性
8.2. 特殊人群
9.AKK菌产品
9.1.产品成分、配方
9.2.临床有效的降血糖配方
10.参考文献
AKK菌是什么
嗜粘蛋白阿克曼菌(Akkermansia muciniphila,简称AKK菌)是一种从人类粪便中分离出来的人类肠道共生菌1。它是一种阿克曼菌属(Akkermansia)的粘蛋白降解细菌,由荷兰Wageningen大学的Muriel Derrien和Willem de Vos于2004年发现2,1。作为疣微菌门(Verrucomicrobiota)疣状菌纲(Verrucomicrobiae)阿克曼氏菌科(Akkermansiaceae)的一员,AKK菌的典型菌株为MucT(=ATCC BAA-835T=CIP 107961T)1,3,4。由于其相对较新的分离,研究历史较短,主要集中于与代谢紊乱的潜在关联5-7。在寻找有益于人类健康的细菌过程中,AKK菌已成为最有前景的生物治疗剂之一,因为它已被证明对某些代谢性疾病具有多种有益作用7,8。这些作用包括改善代谢参数、增强肠道完整性、刺激肠道肽激素分泌和改善代谢性炎症5,9,10。这些临床益处导致该细菌在人类干预研究中进行了安全性测试11,12。在超重/肥胖个体中每天供应1010菌落形成单位(CFU)活的或巴氏消毒的AKK菌3个月后,被认为是安全的,没有不良反应11。该细菌的安全性也在2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者中得到证实12。
最近,巴氏消毒的AKK菌已被欧盟食品安全局(EFSA)确认为一种新食品原料13。基于这些发现和政策,在健康个体和代谢综合征患者(高血糖、腰部脂肪多和胆固醇异常等)中使用AKK菌基本是安全的7,11。然而,在肠道疾病状态下用作治疗的安全性仍有待证实7。
AKK菌肠道生态学
2.1. AKK菌特性和代谢AKK菌是一种革兰氏阴性、严格厌氧、不运动、不形成孢子的椭圆形细菌1,14。该菌定植于人类和其他动物的胃肠道,可以在上皮隐窝的肠粘膜层以及盲肠中找到2。它具体存在于氧-缺氧界面14。虽然严格厌氧,90%以上的AKK菌却可以在95%的氧气和5%的二氧化碳中存活1小时15。AKK菌的不同菌株和种类对氧气的敏感性不同16。在大约90%的健康人体内都有AKK菌,占粪便微生物群的1%至3%,并在生命的第一年在肠道中定植,在宿主的整个生命周期中持续存在17,18;它的体内流行程度会随着年龄增长而增加或肠道疾病状态而变化7。AKK菌主要位于小肠和大肠的远端,在那里它利用粘蛋白作为其主要能量来源,提供细菌生长所需的氨基酸和糖基1,19-21。众所周知,该菌具有降解复杂粘蛋白结构的酶促能力22,23。当AKK菌降解粘蛋白时,它会从粘蛋白层释放不太复杂的碳水化合物,并产生乙酸和丙酸等有机酸1。
AKK模式菌株MucT(ATCC BAA-835)的全基因组长2,664,102个碱基对(bp),蛋白组包含5644种独特的蛋白质,有2176个预测的蛋白编码基因,表明它可以代谢不同种类的碳水化合物和粘蛋白24。对AKK菌的系统发育分析将其分为3或4种水平的系统群25,26。MucT菌株对几种抗生素有耐药性,如氯霉素、克林霉素、链霉素、红霉素、万古霉素和甲硝唑27,28 。MucT菌株在接受广谱抗生素治疗的个体的肠道中也大量定植,这可能是由于AKK菌是一种开放的泛基因组微生物,可以通过横向基因转移不断从其他细菌获得基因25 。
AKK菌能够将粘蛋白作为其唯一的碳、氮和能量来源,因此被认为是一种特殊的菌种2。它通过分别用岩藻糖苷酶和唾液酸酶从粘蛋白O-聚糖链末端去除岩藻糖和唾液酸封端糖来启动粘蛋白降解过程29。然后,AKK菌可以获得脱帽的O-聚糖和粘蛋白肽链,这两者都可以作为能量来源。释放的单糖分布到环境中,其他与粘液相关的肠道细菌可以利用它们29。通过这种方式,AKK菌有助于肠道相关微生物群落的营养共享。粘蛋白降解也会导致有益产物的产生,如短链脂肪酸(SCFA),这有助于其他细菌的生长并保持健康的粘液周转30。它还通过与其他粘蛋白降解细菌竞争和抑制其过度生长来维持微生物平衡。AKK菌可以在厌氧条件下在含有猪胃粘蛋白的培养基或含有葡萄糖、N-乙酰葡糖胺和N-乙酰半乳糖胺的蛋白质源的合成培养基上培养1,24。
2.2.AKK菌的定植及丰度
2.2.1.AKK菌定植取决于肠道位置
肠道中AKK菌的丰度似乎与位置有关。在人类十二指肠活检(0.0688%)和粘液(0.0387%)中可以检测到属于疣微菌门的细菌(未指定为AKK菌)31。Akk菌的平均相对丰度为0.01%,也存在于人类的空肠内容物中32,但疣状菌相关细菌的丰度可占人类回肠远端细菌密度的5%,在升结肠和直肠粘膜活检中分别高达6%和9% 33。与小肠相比,大肠食糜的通过时间要长得多(9-46小时)34,大肠的粘膜层更厚,因此为AKK菌提供了多种底物35。作为一种粘蛋白降解细菌,AKK菌大量存在于富含粘蛋白的肠内位置36,与粘蛋白的浓度呈正相关37。例如,在人类中,每克乙状结肠或升结肠粘膜活检约有1.45×104个AKK菌38。此外,发现管腔中阿克曼菌的比例(0.57%)高于健康个体结肠黏膜中的比例(0.21%)39。pH值可能是影响AKK菌在不同肠段分布的另一个因素。小肠和大肠的pH值分别为6.6~7.5和6.4~7.0(如图1a)40。使用人类消化系统模型—人类肠道微生物生态系统模拟器(SHIME),当远端结肠的pH值为6.6~6.9时,AKK菌的丰度最高41。

图1. AKK菌的丰度和作用随时间和空间变化(Luo Y et al.| NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes 2022)
a.AKK菌沿GIT(小肠和大肠)以及在管腔和粘膜层的分布。
b.人类和小鼠GIT中AKK菌丰度随年龄变化的示意图。
c.AKK菌改善小鼠衰老的机制。
a.AKK菌沿GIT(小肠和大肠)以及在管腔和粘膜层的分布。
b.人类和小鼠GIT中AKK菌丰度随年龄变化的示意图。
c.AKK菌改善小鼠衰老的机制。
2.2.2. AKK菌定植随着年龄增长丰度增加
追踪98名从出生到12个月大的婴儿的粪便细菌组成显示,AKK菌的相对丰度逐渐增加(0%至0.57%)42。在1至4岁的儿童中也发现了类似的增长(0.14%至4.25%)43。此外,在长寿的中国人(≥90岁)中,AKK菌的丰度较高44。与其他年龄组相比,105至109岁老年人群的肠道中AKK菌的丰度尤其高45(图1b)。这些发现46-49促使人们考虑接种外源性AKK菌以减轻衰老的负面影响(图1c)50,51。然而,在使用啮齿动物的研究中发现了相反的结果。AKK菌的丰度在老年小鼠或大鼠中似乎有所下降52-54。尽管AKK菌可能是人类寿命的潜在生物标志物,但小鼠可能不是研究人类这种关系的自然研究模型。
2.3.影响AKK菌在胃肠道定植和丰度的因素
2.3.1.AKK菌的丰度与不同肠道疾病有关
炎症性肠病(IBD),包括克罗恩病(CD)和溃疡性结肠炎(UC)是结直肠癌(CRC)发展的已知危险因素,如结肠炎相关的结直肠癌(CAC)55,是人类癌症相关死亡的第三大原因56。健康个体的AKK菌数量高于IBD患者57,58,尤其是在后肠59。在健康人群中,AKK菌的相对丰度可高达2.9%,但在非炎症UC(0.03%)、炎症UC(0.02%)、非炎症CD(0.62%)和炎症CD(0.20%)患者中,其丰度急剧下降60。此外,CD患者中的AKK菌比UC患者更丰富54,5658,60。
然而,AKK菌的高丰度可能与IBD没有负相关。一个令人惊讶的结果显示,在CRC患者和CRC小鼠中,AKK菌的丰度高于健康个体61,62。此外,AKK菌在CRC的早期阶段富集63。致病性感染也可能增加AKK菌的丰度64,65。
2.3.2.饮食和生活方式可调节AKK菌的丰度
饮食是塑造肠道微生物群的一个不容忽视的重要因素66,67。回顾以前的研究,尤其是AKK菌的丰度与饮食成分之间的关系,这些成分与宿主健康和肠道疾病有关。饮食中高浓度的纤维素可以缓解右旋糖酐硫酸钠(DSS)诱导的小鼠炎症,同时增加AKK菌的丰度68。据报道,富含黑麦麸皮和小麦淀粉的饮食会增加C57BL/6 J小鼠体内阿克曼菌属的相对丰度,同时伴随着甘氨酸甜菜碱代谢的变化69。甘蔗渣(一种水溶性纤维)和低聚木糖也可以增加Fischer 344大鼠体内阿克曼菌的丰度70。又如,牛奶及其制品可以促进移植了婴儿微生物群的小鼠体内AKK菌的生长71,这可能是由半乳糖-N-双糖引发的72。另一项研究表明,奶酪的摄入量与AKK菌的丰度呈负相关73。
通过膳食补充含多酚的葡萄原花青素、绿原酸和白藜芦醇可增加AKK菌,同时改善宿主的代谢状况和抗炎活性,特别是在DSS诱导的结肠炎小鼠中74-76 。有趣的是,葡萄原花青素可能在小鼠体内间接诱导AKK菌的肠道繁殖,但对该菌在体外的数量没有影响74。益生菌如发酵乳杆菌和枯草芽孢杆菌,可以缓解DSS诱导的小鼠结肠炎,并增加阿克曼菌属的丰度77,78 。相比之下,其他益生菌,如青春双歧杆菌,被发现可以在DSS诱导的慢性结肠炎治疗过程中抑制AKK菌的过度生长79。同样,戊糖片球菌和棒状乳杆菌可以通过调节肠道微生物群来改善小鼠的CRC,包括增加AKK菌的丰度80,81。据报道,特定的饮食模式,如低热量饮食、生酮饮食和禁食,会增加健康个体或IBD患者体内AKK菌的丰度82-85 。值得注意的是,肠道微生物组成会受到许多因素的影响,特别是粪便稠度和粪便转运时间,这与AKK菌的丰度密切相关86,87。综上所述,AKK菌可能参与了饮食对IBD的影响,但AKK菌丰度的变化是原因还是结果仍有待确定。
AKK菌在代谢性疾病中的分子机制
肠道微生物组与其与代谢性疾病临床方面的关系已得到广泛研究88,89。肥胖是首批被证明与特定肠道微生物生态明显相关的宿主病理之一90,91也是首次报道AKK菌对宿主生理学存在有益影响的代谢性疾病5。
图2. AKK菌对宿主代谢的分子机制(Si J et al | Gut Microbes.2022)
AKK菌对宿主代谢的分子机制概述:Amuc_1100(AKK菌的外膜蛋白)激活Toll样受体2(TLR2),改善上皮紧密连接,降低体重和脂肪量。该蛋白还可以触发一系列抗炎和促炎细胞因子,预防肥胖、胰岛素抵抗和内脏脂肪组织炎症。L细胞诱导的胰高血糖素样肽-1(GLP-1),与饱腹感和葡萄糖稳态有关。AKK菌通过增加GPR119内源性大麻素受体的激动剂(2-油酰甘油)来调节GLP-1。AKK菌产生的P9蛋白与细胞间粘附分子-2(ICAM-2)结合,激活磷脂酶C(PLC)、细胞内Ca2+信号传导和CREB。巨噬细胞中P9刺激的IL-6表达参与GLP-1的产生。反复经口灌胃AKK菌可促进IL10-/-小鼠的炎症反应,这是由于充满粘液的杯状细胞数量减少导致微生物浸润增加所致。
许多研究提供了证据,表明AKK菌在调节与代谢紊乱相关的宿主代谢过程中发挥重要作用5,92-94。特别是AKK菌降低肠道通透性的能力已被确定为调节宿主代谢的主要机制5,95,96。虽然肠道粘液捕获致病菌并防止上皮磨损作为宿主防御的第一道防线,但肠道的紧密连接(TJs)屏障抑制了细菌抗原从管腔泄漏到上皮组织中97,98。尽管AKK菌以降解粘蛋白而闻名,但它也能够通过增加高脂肪饮食(HFD)诱导小鼠杯状细胞(goblets)的数量和密度来增加粘蛋白的产生,从而恢复粘液层的厚度,因而加强肠道屏障5,22,10。据报道,AKK菌的外膜蛋白Amuc_1100可以降低HFD诱导的肥胖小鼠的体重和脂肪量,同时改善上皮TJs99。已经确定了AKK菌的许多分子机制有助于改善代谢性疾病9,10,100。
3.1. 通过肠道肽激素分泌进行交流
许多先前的研究强调了肠道微生物群在调节影响食欲和能量稳态的肠道肽激素释放中的作用101-103。L细胞是肠道内分泌细胞,在肠-脑轴中起着至关重要的作用。它们通过G蛋白偶联受体(GPCR)检测营养物、微生物群和代谢物的存在,并通过分泌与升高的细胞内钙(Ca2+)浓度相关的肠道肽激素做出反应,从而向大脑发出信号以调节饱腹感104-106。具体来说,胰高血糖素样肽-1(GLP-1)是一种由L细胞诱导的激素,已被证明可以抑制食欲107。GLP-1也被归类为肠促胰岛素激素,因为它通过促进胰腺β细胞分泌胰岛素,在餐后葡萄糖清除中发挥作用108。此外,GLP-1通过激活AMPK通路刺激棕色脂肪组织(BAT)的产热,从而增加能量消耗109。毫不奇怪,由于它靠近L细胞,肠道微生物群在肠内分泌细胞分化和肠道激素分泌中起着至关重要的作用,特别是GLP-1110。例如,AKK菌治疗增加了小鼠回肠中内源性GPR119激动剂2-油酰甘油的水平(图2)5。此外,最近有研究表明,AKK菌通过新发现的分泌蛋白P9支持GLP-1的释放9。
3.2. AKK菌介导的抗炎作用
先前的研究已经提示AKK菌与宿主代谢炎症之间的免疫学关系(图2)10,100。在小鼠中,HFD治疗4周后每天口服AKK菌,通过增加CD4 T细胞群中调节性T细胞(Tregs)的比例来减少内脏脂肪组织炎症,并显著降低内脏脂肪组织中IL-6和IL-1β的表达10。鉴于已知IL-6和IL-1β分泌可促进脂肪组织炎症,并与肥胖和胰岛素抵抗有关,因此提出AKK菌的这种抗炎活性可能是其改善这些代谢紊乱的机制111,112。由于已知Tregs在与代谢紊乱引起的慢性炎症相关的适应性免疫反应的调节中起关键作用113,114,AKK菌诱导的Treg群体的增加可能是生物体调节这种炎症的另一种机制。适应性免疫系统的失调也与AKK菌的定植有关。在缺乏T细胞和B细胞的免疫缺陷的Rag1−/−小鼠中发现这种生物体普遍存在,但从Rag1+/+小鼠的骨髓移植到Rag1−/−小鼠中,降低了其肠道中AKK菌的水平100。免疫系统与AKK菌之间的相互作用也是其在肠粘膜屏障中抗炎作用的一个代表性特征115-117。在IBD患者中,包括克罗恩病(CD)和溃疡性结肠炎(UC),发现AKK菌的丰度显著降低,这表明该生物体对炎症性肠损伤具有保护作用115,116。
一项使用葡聚糖硫酸钠(DSS)诱导的结肠炎小鼠模型的体内研究证实了AKK菌在全身和肠道抗炎中的作用117。每天灌胃AKK菌持续14 天,可通过显著下调小鼠血清和结肠组织中促炎因子改善结肠炎,例如TNF-α、IL-6、IL-1α和IL-12A。此外,AKK菌给药后免疫调节细胞因子IL-10水平显著升高。作为有效化合物,AKK菌蛋白Amuc_1100和P9也被发现具有免疫调节和免疫代谢功能。AKK菌和Amuc_1100诱导一系列抗炎和促炎细胞因子(即IL-8、IL-6、IL-1β、IL-10和TNF-α) 118。P9被证明具有IL-6依赖性的抗肥胖作用9。有趣的是,这两项研究发现AKK菌的IL-6水平升高,与其他HFD或炎症模型不同。IL-6是一种多效性细胞因子,可分别通过反式和经典信号参与促炎和抗炎119,120。尽管尚未研究阿克曼菌中观察到的IL-6的减少/增强是否与这些信号通路有关,但该细胞因子已通过BAT参与肝脏炎症和葡萄糖稳态等代谢过程121,122。在人类受试者中,最近也被证明可以延迟胃排空,从而延迟餐后胰岛素分泌123。作为一种已知有效的GLP-1刺激剂124,AKK菌诱导的 IL-6可能具有其他机制,而不仅是在宿主代谢稳态中直接充当抗/促炎细胞因子,这值得进一步研究。
AKK菌在预防肥胖和代谢综合征中的作用
肥胖与肠道生态失调有关,因为能量消耗和支出之间的不平衡有利于致病菌的流行125-127。宏基因组研究表明,AKK菌的丰度与人类体重呈负相关5,128,129。对粪便中肠道微生物群的分析表明,与瘦弱儿童相比,肥胖和超重儿童的AKK菌浓度降低128。使用微生物组多元关联与线性模型的显著多元线性关联表明,AKK菌的丰度与空腹血糖水平和体重指数(BMI)呈负相关,表明这些细菌可以控制肥胖和糖尿病130。同样,喂食HFD或高糖饮食(HSD)的实验肥胖模型小鼠和遗传性肥胖小鼠(ob/ob)与阿克曼菌的丰度和肥胖、体重、肝脏和脂肪组织炎症、血糖血清、胰岛素和甘油三酯水平呈负相关131-133。由于AKK菌的丰度与代谢性疾病之间存在负相关关系,一些实验研究将其用作治疗这些疾病的潜在益生菌5,129-131。同样,一些研究结果表明,AKK菌粘附在肠上皮上,并在体外增强肠上皮细胞单层的完整性,这表明它有助于肥胖个体肠屏障的完整性15。在HFD诱导的肥胖小鼠模型中,已证明用108-109菌落形成单位(CFU)/mL的AKK菌治疗能够减少小鼠体重增加、白色脂肪组织(WAT)的积聚、能量效率,并改善HFD引起的肝功能损伤99,134。此外,据报道,在HFD诱导的肥胖模型中,巴氏灭菌形式或AmOMV已成功减少或预防肝脂肪变性和脂肪生成135,136。此外,阿克曼菌增长丰度有助于二甲双胍在喂食HFD的小鼠中的抗糖尿病作用,改善葡萄糖耐量,增加脂肪组织中杯状细胞和Treg细胞的数量10。Kong等人(2019)报告称,通过施用益生菌可以缓解小鼠高热量饮食引发的肠道失调,这些益生菌可以恢复有益细菌的比例并增加其丰度,包括阿克曼菌137。
AKK菌调节肥胖和葡萄糖水平的机制尚未完全阐明。之前的一项研究表明,该菌能够增加产热和胰高血糖素样肽-1(GLP-1)的分泌,降低参与脂肪细胞分化的蛋白质的表达,以及空肠中葡萄糖和果糖转运蛋白的基因表达,这表明AKK菌可以减少碳水化合物的吸收134,9,138。同样,一项临床试验观察到,接受Roux-en-Y胃旁路手术的患者阿克曼菌的人群增加,同时人体测量学和临床方面有所改善,如BMI和糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)降低,以及GLP-1水平升高139。
有趣的是,对AKK菌进行巴氏消毒可以通过减少体重、葡萄糖耐受不良、胰岛素抵抗、脂肪细胞直径,以及瘦素和甘油三酯的血清水平来减轻代谢综合征99,140。在喂食HFD的小鼠中,还发现与活的AKK菌相比,AmOMV对脂肪组织中脂质代谢和TNF-α和IL-6等炎症标志物的表达具有更强的抑制作用141。用这种益生菌或AmOMV治疗增加了结肠中杯状细胞和紧密连接(TJs)的数量,恢复了受HFD影响的肠道细菌多样性141,99,140,表明AKK菌可以保持肠道稳态,从而影响肥胖和糖尿病的发展。此外,据报道,AKK菌衍生的蛋白Amuc_1100(膜蛋白)和P9(分泌蛋白)可以减少HFD在小鼠中诱导的肥胖相关代谢综合征99,9。在P9的情况下,葡萄糖稳态和肥胖减少与P9与细胞间粘附分子2(ICAM-2)的相互作用以及IL-6依赖途径中2型巨噬细胞(M2)的增加有关9。
考虑到AKK菌作为治疗小鼠代谢综合征的有效工具,已经进行了一些临床研究11,142,12,143。在这些临床研究中,单独或与其他益生菌联合补充AKK菌的肥胖和/或T2DM患者的临床和代谢状态有所改善。事实上,在人类中也观察到了积极的影响,因为接受1×1010 CFU巴氏消毒AKK菌治疗3个月的肥胖患者体重、脂肪量、臀围、胰岛素抵抗、血浆胆固醇水平、肝功能障碍标志物和全身炎症都有所减轻;这些患者没有出现任何副作用11。值得一提的是,除了已经完成并发表的二项临床试验外,目前还有另外两项处于招募阶段的临床试验,旨在评估AKK菌对肥胖和T2DM(NCT:NCT04797442)以及血糖异常健康个体胰岛素抵抗(NCT:NTC05114018)的影响。
此外,与该菌丰度较低的患者相比,具有较高丰度AKK菌的肥胖患者表现出代谢特征的改善,如总胆固醇水平和热量限制后的胰岛素敏感性6。另一项针对超重和肥胖糖尿病患者的临床试验表明,菊粉和丁酸盐的给药降低了舒张压和TNF-α水平的表达,同时对这些患者产生了双歧杆菌作用,并增加了AKK菌的丰度144。Rodriguez等人(2020)证明,将不同肥胖患者的粪便移植到微生物群被抗生素耗尽并喂食HFD的小鼠身上,对菊粉补充的反应不同,这与最初的肠道微生物群组成有关。在同一项研究中,在补充了菊粉的小鼠中,阿克曼菌数量的增加与体重减轻、胰岛素分泌增加以及肝脏和肌肉脂肪减少之间存在正相关关系145。
肥胖时内脏脂肪的积累是T2DM发展的一个危险因素,因为其脂肪分解活性和具有促炎表型的巨噬细胞的大量募集有利于胰岛素抵抗146,147。在这方面,AKK菌已被证明可以控制脂肪积累和脂肪组织代谢,并通过减少HFD引起的肥胖、空腹血糖和胰岛素抵抗来改善葡萄糖稳态5。对饮食诱导的肥胖小鼠的研究表明,植物多酚的摄入促进了AKK菌的更高丰度,这与预防体重增加、减少内脏脂肪、预防肠道炎症和降低循环脂多糖(LPS)水平有关。结果还表明,阿克曼菌种群数量的增加通过减少LPS易位来提高胰岛素敏感性,因为这种细菌降低了肠道通透性148,149。
AKK菌在2型糖尿病中的作用
5.1.肠道微生物群与2型糖尿病T2DM是一种以高血糖为特征的多因素代谢性疾病。导致高血糖的因素有11个,即:胰腺β细胞不能产生胰岛素;胰腺α细胞增加分泌胰高血糖素;肝糖异生增加;骨骼肌胰岛素作用受损;脂肪组织中的脂肪分解和游离脂肪酸增加;肠GLP-1缺乏;胰淀素分泌减少;通过钠-葡萄糖转运蛋白-2(SGLT-2)增加肾脏对葡萄糖的再吸收;低度全身性炎症;高胰岛素水平和肠道微生物群组成的变化引起的神经刺激可增加食欲150。
肠道微生物群的改变会引起炎症,在T2DM的复杂发病机制中起着重要作用。肠道微生物群促进未消化碳水化合物的发酵,刺激胰岛素分泌,抑制糖异生,增加胰岛素敏感性,并具有抗炎作用。肠道微生物群将未消化的碳水化合物转化为短链脂肪酸(SCFA),这些代谢产物刺激肠道L细胞分泌肠促胰岛素激素(GLP-1、GLP-2和PYY),从而触发胰腺β细胞释放胰岛素152。失调会降低肠壁的完整性,并诱导全身低度炎症。这种代谢性内毒素血症状态是由脂多糖(LPS)与肠细胞表面CD14/toll样受体4(TLR4)复合物的依赖性附着引发的,从而导致炎症和随后的胰岛素抵抗153-155。
各种研究表明,健康人肠道中AKK菌的数量明显大于糖尿病和肥胖症患者128,6。Schneeberger等人在2015年的另一项研究也发现AKK菌的数量与体重、炎症和代谢综合征之间呈反比关系132。
5.2.AKK菌在T2DM中的作用
AKK菌通过多种机制在T2DM的发病机制中发挥作用(如图3)。细菌菌落数量的增加通过在细胞表面的粘液层定植来改善肠壁的完整性,并保护细胞免受独立附着的脂多糖(LPS)的侵害。肠道中AKK菌的数量也取决于其能量来源粘蛋白的数量。此外,施用AKK菌还可以增强再生胰岛衍生蛋白(Reg3γ)的表达,Reg3γ是一种刺激肠上皮微生物群聚集的肽156。

图3. AKK菌在糖尿病中的作用(Sanjiwani MID et al | J ASEAN Fed Endocr Soc. 2022)
AKK菌通过其抗炎机制改善胰岛素敏感性和葡萄糖耐量(图3)。炎症过程始于LPS作为内毒素进入肠细胞黏膜,然后附着在脂多糖结合蛋白(LBP)上,启动核因子KB(NF-KB)和Jun N-末端激酶(JNK)的激活157。AKK菌可以显著减少磷酸化JNK的量,增加肝脏中NF-KB抑制蛋白和IKBA蛋白的水平,表明NF-KB和JNK路径的失活会导致抗炎反应。这得到了α-生育酚(一种必需的抗氧化剂和抗炎因子)158和β-谷甾醇浓度增加的支持,二者维持免疫系统并在肠内皮细胞中提供抗炎活性159。AKK菌还诱导抗炎细胞因子的释放,即IL-10和IL-8160。
葡萄糖耐量的改善是由于脂肪毒性和内质网应激的降低。AKK菌降低了细胞内未折叠的蛋白质水平(内质网应激的标志),如肝脏和骨骼肌中的免疫球蛋白重链结合蛋白/葡萄糖调节蛋白78(BiP/GRP78)和PKR样内质网激酶(PERK)。此外,AKK菌减少了导致内质网应激过程的相关基因,即大肠中C/EBP同源蛋白(CHOP)和Tribbles同源蛋白3(TRB3)的mRNA浓度降低,空肠中蛋白二硫键异构酶(PDI)的mRNA浓度降低。这些基因激活未折叠的蛋白反应,从而引发内质网应激161。这一机制表明,AKK菌可以减轻内质网应激并干扰遗传过程。
AKK菌也在脂肪生成和糖异生过程中发挥作用。补充AKK菌显著降低了参与脂肪生成的基因的表达,即肝脏和肌肉中的固醇调节元件结合蛋白(SREBP1c)和脂肪酸移位酶(CD36)。2015年Schneeberger等人的一项体内研究发现,在补充AKK菌后,肌肉中乙酰辅酶A羧化酶(ACCase)的含量较低132。ACCase是从乙酰辅酶A生成丙二酰辅酶A所需的酶,作为脂肪酸生物合成的底物。ACCase量的减少表明AKK菌减少了肝组织和肌肉中的脂肪沉积,从而增加了胰岛素敏感性154。
在糖异生中,根据腹腔葡萄糖耐量试验(IPGTT),已知补充AKK菌会消耗内脏脂肪量并增加葡萄糖耐量。其给药诱导肝脏和肌肉中磷酸化AKT Ser473的升高,它是这些组织胰岛素敏感性增加的标志。AKK菌还抑制糖异生酶肝葡萄糖-6-磷酸酶(G6P)和磷酸烯醇丙酮酸羧激酶(PEPCK)的表达。正常情况下,这些酶被胰岛素抑制。其水平的降低表明肝脏胰岛素敏感性有所改善162。
5.3.AKK菌调节作为T2DM治疗创新的可能性
可以通过多种方法调节AKK菌,如直接作为益生菌给药、益生元给药以及二甲双胍和减肥手术等其他干预措施。
5.3.1. AKK菌直接给药
AKK菌可以直接给药,但剂量和存活率需要进一步研究。人体中AKK菌的有效剂量尚不清楚,但该菌的标准剂量范围在109至1011CFU之间163。
安全有效地将AKK菌输送到肠道的一种替代方法是微胶囊化164。一项体外研究模拟了微胶囊化AKK菌通过消化道的给药,结果表明,在空腹条件下(pH 2)和餐后条件下(pH 4),AKK菌的生存能力分别降低2.01 log CFU/ml和0.3 log CFU/ml,存活率分别为0.97%和49.76%。未包裹的细菌在空腹和餐后的存活率分别显著降低了3.12 log CFU/ml和1.53 log CFU/ml。这意味着微胶囊化可有效地保护细菌在体外到达肠道163。餐后服用益生菌也是保持细菌存活率的最佳方法163,164。
通过给40名患有胰岛素抵抗的超重/肥胖志愿者服用活的和巴氏灭菌的AKK菌,进行了一项概念验证随机对照探索性研究。结果与血液学、肝脏、肾脏和肌肉功能相关的炎症标志物没有显著变化。然而,AKK菌增加了胰岛素敏感性,降低了总血浆胆固醇、体重和脂肪量11。这项首次人体试验表明,活的和巴氏灭菌的AKK菌都具有良好的耐受性、安全性,并改善了一些代谢参数。
5.3.2.益生元作为肠道AKK菌的促生长物质
近年来,益生元和益生菌的共同使用已经变得流行起来。低聚果糖是一种由短链菊粉碎片组成的低聚糖,一种广泛使用的益生元。2011年,Everard等人发现,口服低聚果糖可以恢复HFD小鼠、瘦素缺乏和肥胖基因操纵小鼠中的AKK菌水平。基线AKK菌水平分别比对照组低100倍和3300倍110。
植物多酚是另一种被越来越多地用作益生元的物质。它来源于葡萄,能滋养肠道微生物群,刺激生长,增加代谢功能,减少炎症148。这被视为肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)、细菌LPS水平的降低和血清IL-6的缺失。Roopchand等人在2015年比较了一组给予多酚加大豆分离蛋白(SPI)的小鼠和一组单独给予SPI的小鼠之间的临床差异。给予多酚-SPI的小鼠体重、肝脏质量和肝脏脂肪较低,葡萄糖耐量明显高于单独SPI饮食组148。此外,Tu等人2008年的一项研究评估了正常小鼠服用含多酚和低聚糖的黑覆盆子的情况。结果发现,与没有干预的正常小鼠相比,AKK菌的比例升高了157倍165。
苹果是这种物质的另一个丰富来源,原花青素是其主要的多酚。苹果中的原花青素大分子可能会抑制肠黏膜中的促炎因子,抑制体重增加,并提高厚壁菌门/拟杆菌的比例,包括AKK菌,作为肠屏障功能修复的触发因子166。Roopchand等人补充说,多酚相对较低的吸收率对它如何对抗氧自由基至关重要。这项研究还发现,HFD小鼠粪便中的AKK菌浓度从7.5%增加到54.8%148。
5.3.3.二甲双胍对肠道AKK菌丰度的影响
二甲双胍是治疗T2DM最常用的处方药167。它在肠道中的积聚量大约是血浆中的300倍,使肠道成为人体内二甲双胍的主要储存库164。Shin等人2014年的一项研究试图证明二甲双胍对肠道微生物群组成的影响。与正常饮食(ND)的小鼠相比,给予HFD的小鼠中与AKK菌相关的疣状菌的发生率显著降低。然而,在二甲双胍给药后,HFD组的疣状菌显著增加,而ND组没有观察到明显变化。二甲双胍还被发现显著增加HFD和ND组小鼠的杯状细胞,与代谢特征或饮食无关。此外,他们发现杯状细胞的数量与肠道中AKK菌的可用性呈正相关10。
Forslund等人2015年的一项研究表明,二甲双胍给药后,T2DM患者肠道中AKK菌的丰度与非糖尿病患者相似。接受二甲双胍治疗的患者也显示出丙酸盐的产生增加,丙酸盐是由AKK菌通过粘蛋白发酵产生的物质167。De La Cuesta Zuluaga等人最近的一项研究也表明,接受二甲双胍治疗后的T2DM患者肠道中的AKK菌是未接受这种治疗的患者的3.4倍168。二甲双胍增强了肠道保护屏障,可能与AKK菌协同作用,维持粘液层的完整性167。尽管需要对可能参与二甲双胍诱导的代谢参数改善的其他细菌属/种进行进一步研究,但这些发现可能表明AKK菌的增加可能有助于二甲双胍的抗糖尿病特性。
5.3.4.减肥手术与肠道微生物群组成的改善
减肥手术(BS)是治疗肥胖患者及其并发症的有效选择169。与BS相关的一个有趣结果是手术后肠道微生物群和多样性的改善,尽管葡萄糖稳态参数没有观察到差异。2017年,Murphy等人报告称,从基线到Roux-en-Y胃旁路移植术(RYGB)后3个月,甚至治疗后1年,肠道微生物群多样性显著增加170。
尽管BS改善了肠道微生物群组成,但其机制尚不完全清楚。除了消化道解剖结构的改变外,还有几个因素会影响BS后肠道微生物群,包括手术后的食物偏好、食物消耗减少和营养吸收不良6,171,172。
Ulker等人在2018年的一项研究表明,BS后饮食治疗方案的不同,即低脂肪-高碳水化合物饮食与高碳水化合物-低血糖指数饮食的差异,会影响肠道微生物群的特定菌株数量,第二个影响BS后肠道菌群的因素是瘦素和饥饿素的激素变化169。据报道,循环血清瘦素水平对肠道Mucispirillum、Lactococcus和Lachnospiracea菌群的生长有积极影响173。最后,肠道微生物群的组成受到胃肠道pH值的影响。由于胃体积减少导致胃酸分泌减少,手术后胃远端胃肠道各组成部分的pH值水平变得更加碱性169。改变pH值对微生物群水平有明显的影响。Murphy等人在2017年的一项研究表明,由于BS后pH值的变化,拟杆菌减少,厚壁菌门和放线菌群增加170。
Dao等人在2019年进行的RYGB后研究显示,3个月后AKK菌的平均相对数量有所增加。术后随访1年,AKK菌水平增加了200倍,尽管总数仍低于非肥胖组。此外,无论进行何种类型的BS,基线时AKK菌水平相对较低的患者数量增加最多174。因此,改善肠道微生物群组成是任何BS手术后的积极作用之一。
5.4.未来展望
AKK菌作为T2DM的潜在疗法可以通过粪菌移植(FMT)来促进,FMT已经用于艰难梭菌感染和炎症性肠病175,176。患者与其肠道微生物群之间复杂的相互作用应引起进一步考虑可能影响AKK菌和肠道调节的其他因素,特别是全面的饮食审查,以维持AKK菌的稳态和效率。与肠道微生物组和不同菌株之间的选择相关的机制需要更多的数据。人们注意到,服用益生菌会引发微生物群之间基因水平转移的干扰177。一些研究发现,乳酸菌在发酵食品中发生了水平的耐药基因转移178,179。已知AKK菌与增加胰岛素敏感性和葡萄糖耐量有关。然而,葡萄糖参数(Hba1c、空腹血糖)的实际降低仍然有限。因此,这方面的知识空白需要在未来的研究中进一步挖掘。
AKK菌在预防炎症性肠病中的作用
众所周知,体内平衡和肠道屏障完整性的损害会导致代谢和胃肠道疾病的发展180,181。肠粘膜屏障已经进化到在吸收必需营养素和预防病原体易位之间保持平衡182。肠上皮的完整性由上皮的紧密连接(TJs)、粘附连接(AJs)和桥粒复合体维持,益生菌或其产生的化合物可以增加其表达,如革兰氏阴性菌的细胞外囊泡(EV)或外膜微囊泡(OMV)183-185。肠黏膜完整性的破坏会导致炎症性肠病(IBD)的发展,如溃疡性结肠炎(UC)和克罗恩病(CD),这是一种慢性特发性炎症性疾病,其特征是对肠道微生物群的免疫反应过度,导致组织损伤186,187。据报道,儿童时期使用抗生素会改变肠道微生物群,增加对IBD的易感性,这表明肠道微生物群在维持肠道稳态方面起着重要作用188。几项研究发现,健康人和IBD患者的肠道微生物群组成存在差异,UC患者的a.muciniphila显著减少189,190。此外,据报道,AKK菌或Amuc_1100可以减轻DSS诱导的小鼠结肠炎。AKK菌衍生的Amuc_1100在结肠炎中的调节作用与结肠中浸润性巨噬细胞、CD8+细胞毒性T淋巴细胞和促炎细胞因子的减少有关,如肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)、白细胞介素(IL)-1α、IL-6、IL-12、巨噬细胞炎性蛋白-1(MIP-1)α、粒细胞集落刺激因子和趋化因子(C-X-C基序)配体1(CXCL1)。此外,AKK菌给药减少了结肠炎小鼠脾脏和肠系膜淋巴结(MLN)中的CD16/32+巨噬细胞117,191。最近的一项研究表明,AKK菌分泌的酶Amuc-2109也能减轻DSS诱导的小鼠结肠炎,增加TJs的表达,降低NLRP3炎性体的表达192。然而,活的AKK菌对DSS诱导的结肠炎的保护作用被证明取决于NLRP3的激活190。事实上,之前已经阐明了NLRP3在调节肠道稳态中的作用,因为NLRP3-/-小鼠更容易患上实验诱导的结肠炎193。此外,研究表明,施用AKK菌可诱导肠道干细胞的增殖,并促进健康小鼠或受辐射和甲氨蝶呤引起的肠道损伤的小鼠小肠和结肠中潘氏细胞(Paneth)和杯状细胞的分化。在同一项研究中,AKK菌在肠道中的有益作用与用AKK菌治疗的小鼠盲肠内容物中乙酸和丙酸的含量增加有关194,从而表明该菌有助于肠黏膜的组织修复,SCFA的产生也参与了这一过程。尽管AKK菌是人类和小鼠胃肠道的常见组成成分,对肠黏膜的完整性具有有益作用,但当发生肠道失调时,AKK菌的定植会加剧炎症17,195。之前的一项研究报告称,使用AKK菌治疗导致肠道炎症恶化,这是由伤寒沙门氏菌感染引起的,这与盲肠杯状细胞减少和促炎细胞因子表达增加有关196。不过,最近,Ring等人(2019)证明,在自发发展为结肠炎的IL-10缺陷型(IL-10-/-)小鼠中,AKK菌的定植对肠道炎症没有影响197。
有趣的是,几项研究表明,与活的AKK菌相比,其外膜化合物或经过巴氏消毒的AKK菌对代谢、炎症和自身免疫性疾病具有更大的治疗潜力198,199,135。值得注意的是,Kang等人(2013)报告了DSS诱导的UC小鼠粪便中EV组成的变化,例如AKK菌和酸化拟杆菌的胞外囊泡(EVs)减少。在同一项研究中,来自AKK菌的OMV(AmOMV)在体外抑制了受大肠杆菌OMV刺激的结肠上皮细胞(CT26细胞系)中IL-6的产生,口服AmOMV而非活菌可在体内减轻DSS诱导的结肠炎198。此外,在高脂饮食(HFD)诱导的肠道失调的小鼠模型中,AmOMVs改善了肠道粘膜屏障功能,增加了TJs和IL-10的表达,并抑制了结肠中的炎症标志物。AmOMV还能够降低肠道通透性,通过AMP活化蛋白激酶(AMPK)增加TJs的表达,抑制TLR-4和干扰素α(IFN-α)的表达,并在体外增加Caco-2细胞系中TLR-2的表达和IL-4的产生95,141。这些数据表明,AKK菌成分及其OMV可能是IBD的潜在治疗靶点。
结语
总之,无论宿主动物种类如何,AKK菌在后肠中都更为丰富。人类胃肠道中AKK菌的丰度随着年龄的增长而增加,这与小鼠的情况相反7。肠道疾病的类型、膳食补充剂以及其他与粘液相关的微生物会影响该菌的丰度,但应谨慎考虑AKK菌作为指示肠道健康风险的生物标志物200。AKK菌可以安全地用于健康个体或代谢综合征患者(腰部脂肪过多、血糖高、血压升高和胆固醇水平异常)7;它也可能有利于维持宿主的肠道稳态。然而,在某些情况下,如缺乏膳食纤维、致病性感染或特定宿主基因型,AKK菌在肠道中的积聚可能会加剧肠上皮的损伤,表明AKK菌可能对宿主的肠道健康产生双刃效应7,200。鉴于AKK菌的菌株特异性基因组和表型,在实际应用之前,对每种菌株进行清晰的描述和讨论至关重要201。安全性与副作用
8.1.剂量与安全性:初步研究表明,活的或巴氏消毒的AKK菌对人体可能是安全的,且没有不良反应11,202,可用于健康个体或代谢综合征患者,包括肥胖症/超重、2型糖尿病和高胆固醇等7。
欧盟食品安全局(EFSA)在2021年批准巴氏消毒的AKK菌作为新食品(NF)资源,每日最大剂量为5 x 1010CFU,适于成人或用于特殊医疗目的13。
据报道,AKK菌使用的标准剂量范围为:109 - 1011CFU163;一项用于肥胖和超重个体的金标准临床试验的典型用量为:1 x 1010CFU11。为减少胃酸对AKK菌的干扰吸收,建议餐后服用为宜,或采用微胶囊化产品164。
不过,由于AKK菌发现和研究时间较短,尚待更多的临床试验来确认AKK菌补充剂是否有任何潜在的副作用,明确的剂量和临床效果99,11。
8.2.特殊群体:
- 妊娠和哺乳期:仍无相关研究数据,不建议使用。
- 儿童:缺乏相关研究,不建议使用,或谨遵医嘱。
- 肠道疾病患者:AKK菌与其他肠道微生物相互作用仍不明确,尚待更多的研究7,201。因此,不建议使用,或遵循医生指导。
关于AKK菌产品
9.1.AKK菌产品及剂量:国际市场上,AKK菌补充剂产品已达数十种,成分包括活的AKK菌产品(基本配以益生元菊粉),以及AKK菌配方的其他产品。AKK菌产品的剂量从108(1亿)到3000亿(300B)不等,但其中仅个别产品标签含有明确的菌株编号,绝大多数产品所含AKK菌的来源不明。
与一般益生菌不同,AKK菌属于严格厌氧菌,需要特殊的生产工艺才能保证产品质量。然而,市场上的产品相关信息披露极少,给消费者选购带来极大不便。重要的是,产品必需明确含有经过临床验证的AKK菌株或相关成分,并且有权威的研究机构背书支撑(在其官网上可查),以确保产品功效作用。
由于AKK菌发现和研究时间较短,产品功能声称尚需要更多的临床数据支持。
9.2.经过临床测试的AKK菌成分:
目前为止,经过同行评审发表的临床研究的AKK菌产品成分极少。据报道,已知有AKK菌株编号为WB-STR-0001及其有关配方,于2020.07.发表在《BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care》12。这是全球首个对患有2型糖尿病的人类受试者(n=76)施用的含有AKK菌配方(含5种厌氧菌)的临床随机对照试验。连续服用3个月后,餐后血糖峰值降低32.5%,糖化血红蛋白值(Alc)降低0.6%,且受试者耐受性好,没有不良反应12。
该产品成分(Pendulum Glucose Control)由美国Pendulum Therapeutics公司研发,它是第一家也是唯一将高分辨率、长读DNA测序的发现应用于针对特定疾病的微生物组干预措施的开发和商业化的循证微生物组公司203。据报道,其成立于2012年,由梅奥诊所(Mayo Clinic)、红杉资本(Sequosia)等美国著名医疗和投资机构参与203。
目前,Pendulum公司推出的有关AKK菌专利系列产品包括:AKK菌(WB-STR-0001),AKK菌(GLP-1配方)、AKK菌(血糖配方)、AKK菌(代谢配方)等。
更多有关AKK菌产品及配方、购买路径等,可参阅本网专文:AKK菌(通论) >>
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